Jean Henry
Encyclopedia Entry 1
History of Nutritional Advice
United States History of Nutritional Advice
Background:
Nutritional guidelines on eating habits have been discussed among disciplines, however it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that the recommendations were made based on scientific research and used to sell products, perpetuate moral judgments and affect the daily lives of individuals[1]. Conceptions of health have changed continuously and the dietary guidelines released by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have reflected these ideologies. The evolution of dietary advice throughout the early 19th century was associated with vegetarianism, as related to anti-slavery movements.[2] Later when the germ theory emerged, advice was focused on ideas of purification and ‘pure foods’ in order to avoid contamination.[3] The 20th century brought about new research that found the direct correlation between chronic disease and diets high in fat, sugar and sodium. [4] In the late 20th century and throughout the 2000s, exercise was included in nutritional advice in hopes of ameliorating the obesity epidemic. Health is therefore directly related to one’s lifestyle choices, such as diet, and such choices are often associated with the individual’s morals. Considering this, it is unsurprising that throughout history nutritional advice appeals to health, which “allows for a set of moral assumptions that allowed to fly stealthily under the radar and the definition of our own health depends in part on our value judgments about others.”[5] In this encyclopedia entry I aim to show how the history of nutritional advice is replete with moral ideology, cultural and scientific movements and ultimately its effect on individuals’ conceptions of health and behavior.
Early History (19th Century):
I begin with Sylvester Graham’s dietary advice that advocated for an ascetic and temperate diet and pervaded conceptions of health in the 1800s.[6] Graham was a Presbyterian minister who stressed the importance of both physical and moral health.[7] In his book titled Discourse on a Sober and Temperate Life, Graham asserts that one must avoid “eating promiscuously”; this consists of no alcohol, meat or spices, and focused on eating local foods such as rice and potatoes.[8] While claiming that his regimen was based on scientific knowledge, his advice regarding temperance had more to do with the ‘issue’ of masturbation than it did health[9]. He drew a parallel between sex and diet- “it learns to think, even of the sexual organs, with as little lasciviousness as it does of the stomach…”[10] In other words, appetite for sexual desire and for food were directly related and therefore, by exerting temperance in one’s diet, one could more easily control sexual desires. This appealed to the fears of sexual promiscuity at the time, particularly those surrounding masturbation. Taking into consideration how morally egregious masturbation was in the 19th century is essential in understanding how Sylvester Graham came up with the diet regiment, and why it appealed to the American population. In this time period, masturbation was not only a moral issue, but in fact, considered a disease (called onanism), which could cause fatal health complications.[11] “Masturbation is a primary and indirect cause of more than two-thirds of the sickness and distressing disorders at present incident to the human family… masturbation is not only the most active cause of disease, but the most fatal to human existence.”[12] As seen in Figure 1, the ill effects of masturbation were ones that were rooted in moral values but were perceived to have concrete implications on one’s health.
Figure 1: The figure shows the extent to which onanism was thought to degrade the human body. The diagram shows the difference between a healthy teste on the left versus one impact by onanism on the right. [13] The image illustrates the extent to witch onanism was considered a disease and unhealthy based on moral values.
In Graham’s own words-“In the first place, self-pollution (masturbation) is actually a very great and rapidly increasing evil in our country…” and because of this pervading evil, people must eat temperate diets and avoid overstimulation of their appetite for food and as a result, sex.[14] His lectures and books ultimately advocated a temperate diet to appeal to the morals of the population at the time- by eating a temperate diet; one was not only ‘healthy’ but was moral. Considering that Graham was a reverend was a source of appeal to the public and ultimately proves to be an example in early history of food and health being used to make moral judgments and control individuals’ bodies and behaviors.
One crucial characteristic tied to politics and morality in Graham’s dietary regimen was vegetarianism.[15] In 1850, the American Vegetarian Society (AVS) was founded and was explicitly associated with abolitionist thought- ‘there is no slavery in this world like the slavery of man to his appetite.’[16] Therefore the moralism that Graham advocated for through a meatless diet fueled the negative connotation of meat that abolitionists associated with violence and corruption.[17] It was only through a meatless diet that violence and slavery could be eradicated; it was perceived that individuals able to eat flesh were also individuals that could participate in the horrors of the slave trade.[18] However, this caused a robust dichotomy between the eating habits of the Northern abolitionists and the Southern slave owners- “food became one arena in which Northern reformers and the slave-holding South were locked in battle to define American morality.”[19] As a relatively new country, the US struggled to establish its morals and the balance between freedom and order: “[t]he idea of sovereign nation paralleled the idea of the free individual, capable of free will and therefore also in control. Diet, therefore, represents sovereignty through ingestive choice.”[20]
Post-Civil War, the AVS dissolved and dietary advice became concerned with feeding the new work force, one which had demands: “the working class voiced many of its demands for higher wages in terms of the equal right to share in America’s dietary riches… struggles over wages often became struggles over meat-eating…”[21] In order to feed the working class properly, the focus in the late 19th century shifted to the quantifying and scientific inquiry of the chemical properties of foods (following the discovery of the calorie in Europe).[22] Calories became a mechanism by which food and energy expenditure could be quantified, consequently, “calories fueled a heated debate on poverty and hunger, which was part of an upsurge of labor conflict.”[23]
In the 1890s W.O. Atwater addressed these issues through a series of experiments that aimed to scientifically determine what an individual, or worker, needed to fuel their bodies (or “machines”) for the purpose of being an efficient worker. [24] Atwater focused on the chemical components of food and ways to maximize one’s paycheck to buy the foods that were simultaneously the most energetically efficient and cost effective- however his advice also functioned to evade workers’ demands for higher wages.[25] These guidelines focused on the content of protein, carbohydrates and fats in food, while also highlighting the importance of rations and avoiding excess. [26] By focusing on rationing and energy content of foods, Atwater was able to avert the public’s focus from higher wages to ‘healthier diets.’ “With the help of the calorie and by being able to compare different foodstuffs, reformers found that the solution to the problem of hunger was not to raise wages but to choose foodstuffs more carefully.”[27] The rise of the calorie and Atwater’s work functioned for ensuring the efficiency of America’s workforce, rather than for the wellbeing of individuals. As seen in Figure 2 below, the guidelines advocate for a diet that was both energy and cost effective to eliminate the need for higher wages. [28]
Fig. 2: Income and Expenditure in a man’s body from Atwater’s The chemistry of foods and Nutrition. This shows how Atwater’s focus was based on quantifying the components of food to maximize the efficiency of workers.
“Atwater suggested that workers should substitute expensive cuts of meat with cheap ones – or green veggies with oatmeal. Thereby, they should meet their caloric needs in a much cheaper way, and thus keep within their budgets. Here, calorie contributed to cap wages.”[29] It is evident that Atwater’s work meant to quantify food in a financially beneficial way to avoid the topic of wages.
The 20th Century to Present:
Atwater’s research inspired scientists to study the chemical components of food in an era where scientists gained authority through the rise of institutions such as universities and government organizations.[30] In conjunction with affecting workers’ wages, the rise of the calorie led to a paradigm shift in the ideology regarding personal choice and accountability of the consumer.[31] “In the early 20th century, the new knowledge about calories facilitated a new form of self-conduct. At the same time it made this self-conduct seem appropriate and necessary and helped to create the ideal of self-responsible consumers caring about their own body and health.”[32] Additionally, the discovery of the germ led to an ideology based on fear of contamination and thus a focus on purification one’s body through a diet consisting of ‘pure foods’ and clean eating for the purpose of safeguarding against disease (specifically those that afflicted children). [33] Figure 3 illustrates the focus on being clean, especially as related to the body, both internally and externally.
Figure 3: An ad from a laxative company promoting a pure body through cleaning the digestive system in 1930.[34] This image shows how the rise of the germ manifested an ideology concerned with cleanliness and purity.
The first USDA food guide, called Food for Young Children, explicitly catered to these fears while also establishing guidelines based on household routines all aimed toward reducing the possibility of contagion. [35] Figure 4 illustrates how nutritional advice was aimed at children’s health to mitigate fears of disease in children and general cleanliness.
Figure 4. Reads: “Food for children between three and six years of age should be chosen with reference to their bodily needs, as described in the following pages, and should be carefully prepared and attractively served as shown in the above picture.”[36]
In the 1940s several versions of the “Basic Seven” guide to good eating were released; they consisted of seven food groups that served to inform the public about basic nutritional needs in order to help people cope with limited supply of certain foods during World War 2. [37] The guide served as a framework for consuming a sufficient amount of nutrients, and while several versions of this guide were released (such as the Basic Four guide), the framework retained the principle of acquiring adequate nutrients until 1977. [38] As seen in Figure 3, ‘health’ meant anyone that was not malnourished, and therefore advocated the rhetoric of “eat more” of “any other foods you want” with no regard to quantity or chemical components. [39]
Figure 5: The Basic Seven Guide merely advised what foods to eat to avoid undernourishment during World War 2.[40]
Dietary goals for the United States released in 1977 provided goals for nutrient intake and quantified amounts of each food group. In 1979 the Hassle-Free Guide to a Better Diet guide shifted focus from that of sufficient nutrients to that of avoiding excess intake for reasons concerning chronic disease.[41] This was based on the growing scientific research done by the American Society for Clinical Nutrition that found a direct relationship between excess calories, fat, sodium and sugars to chronic disease.[42] The guideline had advised to eat less meat, eggs and whole milk, however, after the beef industry met with the Senate Committee, the recommendations changed from “eat less meat” to “eat more lean meat.” [43] While the involvement of food industries in politics and nutritional advice is important in US dietary guidelines, it is not the focus of this entry. However, I would like to mention that the Committee also revised the guideline (in response to the egg industry’s complaints) to include that eggs may also ease cholesterol.[44] Overall, the guidelines were revised to modify the definition of health to cater to the meat and egg industry, while also addressing fears of chronic disease.
In 1984, the Food Wheel provided a holistic diet approach that gave rise to the Food Guide Pyramid in 1992.[45] The Food Pyramid was based on consumer research to determine eating patterns of the ‘average American’- described as “adults having a high school education who were not overly constrained by food cost concerns.”[46] The Food Pyramid was then revised in 2005 to the MyPyramid Food Guidance System; while it included daily amounts at different caloric levels, the guide was still based on consumer research and provided a simpler illustration.[47]
Figure 6. The Food Guide Pyramid created in 1992 based on consumer research.[48]
The most recent dietary guideline to date is the MyPlate illustration (Figure 6) constructed in 2011 following the food patterns updated by the USDA.[49] The round shape was geared to consumers and the “visual is linked to food and is a familiar mealtime symbol in consumers’ minds, as identified through testing.” [50] The more recent guidelines have also included exercise and fitness due to the obesity epidemic.[51]
Figure 7: The most recent dietary guideline administered by the USDA.
The more recent dietary guidelines illustrate how health has now been based on appearance and a standard of what is perceived as ‘not healthy.’ For example, the food pyramid included exercise in response to the obesity epidemic and fears of being overweight. Berlant’s chapter in Against Health, “On Obesity, Eating, and the Ambiguity of ‘Health’”, asserts that obesity is widely seen as “a disease of the will or as simple irresponsibility.”[52] This ideology has given rise to habits of reductionism, rather than enjoyment. “These days we do not eat for pleasure, but to lower our numbers.”[53] Reductionism is seemingly the implicit moral in contemporary society and serves as the framework for the newer dietary guidelines.
Relation to Politics of Health:
After contextualizing the history of nutritional advice, it is apparent how cultural ideologies and morals, as well as media, impact conceptions of ‘health’ and what constitutes a healthy diet. As Metzl argues in Against Health-“ even the most cursory examination of health in daily conversation, email solicitation, or media representation demonstrates how the term is used to make moral judgments, convey prejudice, sell products, or even to exclude whole groups of persons from health care.”[54] Furthermore, Metzl asserts, “health is a concept, a norm, and a set of bodily practices whose ideological work is often rendered invisible by the assumption that it is a monolithic, universal good.”[55] In other words, while it may seem that health is concrete, it is often more abstract in that it is influenced by social constructions; furthermore health is dependent upon social factors riddled with implicit moral values. As seen in the early history of dietary advice, morals were used to support vegetarian diets to reduce one’s sexual appetite- a clear indication that diet is based on moral judgments. Furthermore, the relationship between vegetarianism and abolitionists illustrates the ‘ideological work’ at play in nutritional advice. Meat was thought to induce violent and sexual behavior, and those who ate meat were associated with the horrors of slavery, and therefore an individual’s diet became an indication of their character and inseparable from their morals. In Graham’s words, ““all blessed with the best health; and, by what as yet appears, fond of learning, and of good parts and morals.”[56]
Metzl also argues that bodies can be regulated by the moral assumptions provided in such conceptions of health. [57] This is exemplified by the attempt to subdue the wishes of higher wages for the working class in the post-civil war era. The question of higher wages could be evaded if there were guidelines to efficiently purchasing foods that would increase efficiency. Soon after, fears of contagion sparked scrutiny inside of households in order to regulate how and what foods were served inside of homes.
In the 20th century, dietary guidelines were tailored less towards healthy individuals and more towards healthy consumers. Guidelines were built around consumerism research and were catered to a preconceived notion of an ‘average family.’ This excluded those of a low socioeconomic status that lacked disposable income- a clear example of health being portrayed in a manner that excludes the already marginalized peoples. Overall, dietary guidelines are exemplary of Metzl’s argument that moral perceptions and ideologies impact perceptions of health. Each social reform movement and shift in ideology affected perceptions of a ‘healthy’ diet, all of which is reflected in each dietary guideline. It is also important to note the overall paradigm shifts that occurred in nutritional advice- firstly dietary advice was given based on political beliefs in the early 19th century, then shifted to one of standardizing sufficient nutrient take for profit (and efficiency of workers) and then lastly to one that focuses on personal choice and accountability in regards to reducing one’s intake to avoid the stigma of obesity and lack of personal will.
Bibliography:
“A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
Cooper, Arthur. “A Note On Onanism And Its Effects On The Man.” U.S. National Library of Medicine. February 28, 1914. Accessed February 28, 2018.
Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.
Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. doi:10.1525/california/9780520275478.001.0001.
Graham, Sylvester. A lecture to young men on Chastity. Intended also for the serious consideration of parents and guardians.London, 1854.
Graham, Sylvester, and Luigi Carnaro. “Discourses on a Sober and Temperate Life.” Google Books. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=8poEAAAAYAAJ&%3Boe=UTF-8.
Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story Radio .
Mackert, Nina. “What Calories Do.” Food, Fatness and Fitness. July 19, 2016. Accessed February 27, 2018. https://remedianetwork.net/2017/11/01/what-calories-do/.
Metzl, Jonathan, and Anna Kirkland. Against Health: How Health Became the New Morality. New York: New York University Press, 2010.
Schneeman, Barbara O. “Evolution of dietary guidelines.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association. December 09, 2003. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002822303013737?via%3Dihub.
Shprintzen, Adam D. 2013. The Vegetarian Crusade : The Rise of an American Reform Movement, 1817-1921. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2013. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed February 28, 2018).
[1] Schneeman, Barbara O. “Evolution of dietary guidelines.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association. December 09, 2003.
[2] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[3] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 77
[4] Schneeman, Barbara O. “Evolution of dietary guidelines.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association. December 09, 2003. Accessed February 13, 2018.
[5] Metzl, Jonathan, and Anna Kirkland. Against Health: How Health Became the New Morality. New York: New York University Press, 2010. 2.
[6] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[7] Shprintzen, Adam D. 2013. The Vegetarian Crusade : The Rise of an American Reform Movement, 1817-1921. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2013. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed February 28, 2018). 16.
[8] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Graham, Sylvester. A lecture to young men on Chastity. Intended also for the serious consideration of parents and guardians.London, 1854. 12.
[11] Cooper, Arthur. “A Note On Onanism And Its Effects On The Man.” U.S. National Library of Medicine. February 28, 1914. Accessed February 28, 2018. 122.
[12] Ibid,.124.
[13] Cooper, Arthur. “A Note On Onanism And Its Effects On The Man.” U.S. National Library of Medicine. February 28, 1914. Accessed February 28, 2018.
[14] Ibid,. 20.
[15] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 37.
[19] Ibid,. 47.
[20] Ibid,. 9.
[21] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 56.
[22] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[23] Mackert, Nina. “What Calories Do.” Food, Fatness and Fitness. July 19, 2016. Accessed February 27, 2018. https://remedianetwork.net/2017/11/01/what-calories-do/.
[24] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 67.
[25] Ibid,. 58.
[26] Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time. 34.
[27] Mackert, Nina. “What Calories Do.” Food, Fatness and Fitness. July 19, 2016. Accessed February 27, 2018. https://remedianetwork.net/2017/11/01/what-calories-do/.
[28] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 67.
[29] Mackert, Nina. “What Calories Do.” Food, Fatness and Fitness. July 19, 2016. Accessed February 27, 2018. https://remedianetwork.net/2017/11/01/what-calories-do/.
[30] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 77.
[31] Mackert, Nina. “What Calories Do.” Food, Fatness and Fitness. July 19, 2016. Accessed February 27, 2018. https://remedianetwork.net/2017/11/01/what-calories-do/.
[32] Ibid.
[33] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 77.
[34] Dupuis, E. Melanie. “Dangerous Digestion.” 2015. 116.
[35] “A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time. 36.
[38] “A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
[39] Ibid.
[40] “A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
[41] Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.36.
[42] Ibid,. 37.
[43] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[44] Health Nuts. A History of Nutritional Advice. Podcast audio, Recorded January 06, 2017. Back Story.
[45] “A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
[46] Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.42.
[47] A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017. Accessed February 14, 2018. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/brief-history-usda-food-guides.
[48] “A Brief History of USDA Food Guides.” Choose MyPlate. May 11, 2017.
[49] Ibid.
[50] Davis, Carole, and Etta Saltos. “Chapter 2: Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.” In USDA/ERS. Accessed February 14, 2018. Dietary Recommendations and How They Have Changed Over Time.42.
[51] Schneeman, Barbara O. “Evolution of dietary guidelines.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association. December 09, 2003. Accessed February 13, 2018.
[52] Metzl, Jonathan, and Anna Kirkland. Against Health: How Health Became the New Morality. New York: New York University Press, 2010. 26.
[53] Ibid,.22.
[54] Ibid,. 2.
[55] Ibid,. 9
[56] Graham, Sylvester, and Luigi Carnaro. “Discourses on a Sober and Temperate Life.” Google Books. Accessed February 13, 2018.82.
[57] Metzl, Jonathan, and Anna Kirkland. Against Health: How Health Became the New Morality. New York: New York University Press, 2010.
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