Historical Astronomers in Context

  1. Isaac Newton (B. December 25, 1642 D. March 20, 1727) was important because he was one of the first people to accurately describe mathematically how planetary motion works. He was able to begin to mathematically describe how gravity works and especially how it relates to mass on a massive planetary scale.
  2. When Newton was at Trinity college, they had to close due to the Bubonic Plague. It killed a quarter of London’s population. The English Civil War was also occurring when he was born. They were between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians of England.
    1. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch microscopist that discovered bacteria and protozoa which helped create modern day bacteriology.
  3. During the 1600’s the scientific revolution was well underway. Whether it is Spinoza making new philosophies, Newton or Galileo making breakthroughs in astronomy and physics, or Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek in biology. The foundations of what we use today were just being laid during this time period.
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Historical Astronomers in Context

Johannes Kepler (Nov. 27, 1571- Nov. 15, 1630) was a German scientist and early astronomer. He was responsible for discovering three major laws of planetary motion: 1. Planets orbit the sun in an elliptical movement; 2. The area law; 3. The harmonic law. He also modified Copernicus’ Sun-centered system to a dynamic universe approach, where the Sun is active in shifting how the planets orbit around it. Much like many scientists during his time, Kepler was well-versed in many fields, including physics, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. He used the knowledge from these fields to further his understanding of the early days of astronomy.

Kepler lived through many important global events. In 1588 the Spanish Armada was defeated by the English. King Phillip II of Spain ordered the armada to aid in the planned invasion of England, but before the invasion could begin, the armada was attacked by British ships and forced away. This decisive military victory was a massive blow to what was then thought of as the greatest naval military force in the world and started the decline in Spanish military power. Additionally, in 1611 the King James Version of the Bible is published, becoming one of the most culturally important English books. The version to this day remains the preferred translation of protestant Christian groups and religious movements.

Another important and influential person who lived at the same time as Kepler was René Descartes (March 31, 1596-Feb 11, 1650). Descartes was a revolutionary figure in modern philosophy and science. In terms of philosophy, he laid the groundwork for rationalism (in opposition to empiricism), increased the importance and attention of epistemology, and famously made the groundbreaking philosophical statement “cogito ergo sum.”


Doing this research really helped me understand the (Western) astronomical timeline and put into perspective how exponentially things have changed over the 20th and 21st centuries compared to the 16th and 17th centuries. With our current technology we have abilities that past astronomers could only dream of. Not only have we sent people to space, but we are able to see the far reaches of the universe through telescopes like the Hubble and James Webb. We’ve been able to advance astronomical knowledge far past what our predecessors thought possible, but they still laid the groundwork that led to these discoveries today.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601):

Tycho Brahe is most famous for making the best observations of stars and planets in his era. He did this at a time without a telescope so he provided the most accurate empirical data of celestial bodies at the time. His documentation of  planetary positions helped lead Johannes Kepler to create his laws of planetary motion. Brahe also held a geo-heliocentric view of the universe.

ELIZABETH I:

In 1558 Elizabeth I became queen. This marked the start of the Elizabethan Age, a period known for its positive changes in England. Elizabeth I helped create a more peaceful and united England especially through the resolution of religious conflicts. By the end of her rule Elizabeth I had left England a much more powerful and wealthy country.

THE SPANISH ARMADA:

In 1588 Spain sent a fleet to invade England. This fleet is known as the Spanish Armada. The invasion failed when the english navy, with better tactics and faster ships, defeated them. This was a very important event as it marked a turning point for military power in Europe, shifting the needle towards England.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616):

Shakespeare is, if not the best, the most famous writer in the English language. His works continue to profoundly influence English literature and drama. His plays explored fundamental aspects of humanity and its desires which have helped his works remain relevant throughout the centuries.

MY REFLECTION:

Tycho Brahe existed at a time when there were major shifts of power and culture in Europe. It also seems to me that Brahe was responsible for a mirrored shift in the quality of astronomy. His findings, without the telescope, were revolutionary for the time and inspired many of the foundational astronomical concepts used today. I also find it fascinating how this is reflected in Shakespeare’s work. Shakespeare frequently uses imagery related to astronomy and the night sky. I immediately thought of the line from Hamlet

“Doubt thou the stars are fire;

  Doubt that the sun doth move;

  Doubt truth to be a liar;

  But never doubt I love.”

These are literal references to astronomical theories. This is not only a beautiful use of celestial imagery, but also indicative of the era’s shift towards a more scientific understanding of space and the cosmos. Examples like this serve as a reminder of how art and science are often more connected than we think.

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Historical astronomers in context

Isaac Newton: Isaac Newton was born in December 1642 and died in March 1727. Newton made important contributions to the study of astronomy. One of Newton’s first accomplishments was the invention of integral calculus, which was an important foundation of mathematics for his astronomical discoveries. Newton’s experiments with prisms and sunlight led to the discovery of the visible light spectrum. He is also credited with inventing the reflecting telescope. One of Newton’s most notable contributions to astronomy is his three Laws of Morion which outlite his theories about gravity. 

The English Civil War (1642-1651): The English Civil War was one major historical event during Newton’s lifetime. The war was a series of conflicts between the loyalists to parliament and loyalists to the King. The war led to the execution of King Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth.

The Great Fire of London (1666): Another significant event during Newton’s lifetime was the Great Fire of London in 1666. The fire burned nearly the entire city of London. The reconstruction of London after the fire greatly impacted architecture and urban planning.

John Locke (1632-1704): John Locke is a highly regarded English physician and philosopher who made important contributions to the Enlightenment. Locke is well known for his theories about liberalism which had a lasting impact on government today.

Reflection: I enjoyed this assignment because it reminded me of the Enlightenment era. I tend to think of historical events and scientific inventions as purely independent of each other so this homework helped me challenge that. It was interesting to see how Newton’s lifetime overlapped with events like the English Civil War and the Great London Fire because it provided historical and cultural context for his contributions. Learning about Newton’s discoveries in the context of this period also put into perspective the influence that the Enlightenment had on modern times.

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HISTORICAL ASTRONOMERS IN CONTEXT

Galileo

Ethan Popper

Dr. Grundstrom

The Solar System

04 February 2024

Historical Figures in Context

  1. Historical Figure: Galileo Galilei – February 15, 1564, – January 8, 1642

  1. Galileo was one of the first people to use a telescope to observe the skies. In 1609, he improved upon existing designs to make his own telescope with about 3x magnification, eventually reaching up to 30x magnification. He discovered, using a homemade telescope, four moons orbiting the planet Jupiter. 
    1. Pilgrims from England arrive at Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the Mayflower which notably becomes the embodiment of the American holiday, Thanksgiving. 
    2. The Taj Mahal starts getting built in India
  2. Discovering that legendary mathematicians like Kepler, Galileo, and Brahe were born within just decades of each other makes me realize how coincidental things can be. This closeness in timing makes me wonder if we’re currently living through an era that future generations will look back on as the birth period of the next great mathematicians and scientists. This is because of the internet — it has revolutionized our lives in countless ways, connecting ideas and people across the globe. This digital age could very well be nurturing the minds that will shape the future of science and mathematics. It’s a thrilling time to be alive.

Works cited: 

Machamer, Peter, and David Marshall Miller. “Galileo Galilei.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 4 June 2021, plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/. 

Holyoke, Michael, et al. “Home.” Famous Scientistshttp://www.famousscientists.org/galileo-galilei/. Accessed 6 Feb. 2024. 

“The Mayflower Story.” Mayflower, http://www.mayflower400uk.org/education/the-mayflower-story/. Accessed 6 Feb. 2024.

Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Taj Mahal.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/#:~:text=An%20immense%20mausoleum%20of%20white,masterpieces%20of%20the%20world’s%20heritage. Accessed 6 Feb. 2024.

HISTORICAL ASTRONOMERS IN CONTEXT

HISTORICAL ASTRONOMERS IN CONTEXT

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Johhanes Kepler was important to astronomy for many reasons, the major reason was for his 3 laws of planetary motion. One of them was that the planets orbit elliptical around the sun. Another is the square of the orbital period of a planet being proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of orbit. (Link)

A)(Link) In the year 1577 the first clock with a minute hand was made and developed by Jost Burgi,who was a Swiss clockmaker. In 1593 Italy, Galileo developed the first thermometer.(Link)

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was born 1536, Japan and died Sept. 18, 1598. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was the feudal lord of Japan was the person that unified it together to create what it is now.(Link)

This was actually quite interesting as not only did we know the time periods the major astronomers lived from but also what was going on during that time. It also showed how long it took for new ideas to develop during one astronomers life to the other and how fast they improved with technology. 

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Astronomy’s Pioneers

Isaac Newton was something truly special – I’ve heard many, in my opinion correctly, claim him to be the most intelligent human that has ever lived. From finding an infinite series to describe the precise digits of pi into infinity, to inventing calculus, to observing the laws of motion and beginning to crack the code of gravity, Isaac Newton contributed at least as much to the global progression of science as any other human who has ever lived. His genius was extraordinary, unprecedented, and likely will never be seen again on such a scale.

He was born on January 4th, 1643, and died on March 20th, 1727, at the age of 84. It was later discovered that there were traces of Mercury in Newton’s system at the time of his death, leading to speculation of mercury poisoning. He was buried, and still rests, at Westminster Abbey in London. I have seen this building, and of all the historical figures that I learned were buried there, I was most impressed by Newton!

During this man’s incredible life, many other crazy things were happening on earth at the same time…

The Thirty Years War ended in 1648. The Thirty Years War was extremely significant for many reasons. The conditions under which it ended changed the European political balance permanently. The influence of the Pope and the Church, politically, would be enormously diminished. The Holy Roman Empire, headed by King Phillip II, would never possess such political and military authority. The Thirty Years War represented the last truly religious war in Europe.

Louis XIV is crowned King of France! “The Sun King,” as he will be called, begins construction of his fantastic Palace of Versailles. Louis will become the textbook example of European Absolutism, which will take the continent by storm in the coming decades.

Johannes Vermeer, a famous Dutch Baroque painter, lived at the same time as Isaac Newton. He is famous for his scenes of indoor Dutch life, with his most famous painting being Girl With a Pearl Earring, something that I am quite confident we’ve all seen, even if we don’t attribute the work to Vermeer.

I suppose looking back into history like this, everything seems very dense. That’s because, presumably, we have had such a long time to discern what and who was important. Thus, it should come as no surprise that, throughout history, there is an enormous overlap between famous people, in different disciplines especially, who have lived at the same time. However, even knowing this, and applying the logic, it is still rather awe inspiring to think that the Thirty Years War, Louis XIV, Johannes Vermeer, and Isaac Newton himself were all occurring, on planet Earth and on the same continent even, at the same time. What a time to be alive! I wonder if others in the future will say the same thing about us right now… I find it hard to believe they will, but who knows.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

by me

Galileo Galilei: Born on February 15, 1564, Died on January 8, 1642

Two major historical events during Galileo’s lifetime:

  1. On Jan 1, 1597, Shakespeare published his play “Romeo and Juliet”. This is one of his most famous plays that is still read/watched to this day.
  2. On Jan 1, 1577, Sir Francis Drake embarked on his famous voyage around the world. He was the first Englishman to go around the world and increase our knowledge of the world’s geography.

A famous historical figure during Galileo’s lifetime:

 Queen Elizabeth I: Born on September 7, 1533, Died on March 24, 1603. Queen Elizabeth I established a secure Church of England and laid out a compromise between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism after narrowly escaping an execution after a failed rebellion against Queen Mary.

Brief Reflection:

I sometimes forget that all these different famous people actually all overlap. I always think that oh Shakespeare is this old and Galileo was during this time, but all these people actually lived pretty close to each other. While Galileo was looking at Stars, Shakepeare was making plays, English pilgrims landed at Plymouth rock, and Ottomans were on conquests. All these people are so different from each other, but they all existed very close to each other. Makes me think about the beauty of history. Maybe something similar is happening to us right now, we just have to wait and see.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

I chose to learn more about Isaac Newton! He was born on December 25th, 1642 and died on March 31st, 1727.

Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation that helped explain the force that determines the motion of celestial bodies. Newton established the three laws of motion, the law of inertia, the law of acceleration, and the law of action and reaction, which are fundamental principles used in astronomy. Isaac Newton also invented calculus which is a powerful mathematical tool that can be used to analyze the motion of celestial bodies.

What was happening during Isaace Newton’s lifetime?

In 1666, The Great Fire of London took place during which a significant portion of the city of London was burned down, leading to improvements in urban planning.

The Salem Witch Trials occurred in 1692 until 1693 in colonial Massachusetts and it saw the execution of nineteen women accused of witchcraft and the death of six other innocent people during interrogation.

Antonio Vivaldi was born on March 4th, 1678 and died on July 28th, 1741. He was one of the most influential composers that composed in the classical Baroque style, writing masterpieces such as “The Four Seasons” and “Gloria in D major” that fundamentally influenced the trajectory of classical Baroque music.

Here are some of my thoughts:

While Isaac Newton was establishing calculus and the fundamental laws of physics that still are foundational to almost every denomination of contemporary science and mathematics, women were being hanged for witchcraft in Massachusetts and the city of London was recovering from a devastating fire that today would have been stopped within minutes. These events in relation to the discoveries of Isaac Newton seem disjointed but I believe that this will always be the case when observing the past. We will never have a clear idea of what it must have been like to live as someone from the late 17th and early 18th centuries just as future generations will not be able to understand our current one as well as we do. It may also seem disjointed in our current world to have high speed internet and reusable rockets but still have the whole world shut down due to a virus. There will always be disparities between what we believe to be “current’ or “of the past” or “of the future”.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727): Isaac Newton was a pivotal figure in astronomy and physics due to his concepts of the laws of motion and universal gravitation. Newton’s laws of universal gravitation, which were formed from his three laws of motion, state that every particle attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Newton’s work, known as the “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ” is known as one of the most important works in science and combines the concepts of planetary motion and gravitational theory. Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope, which today is known as the Newtonian telescope and is still a very popular design.

Painting of Isaac Newton
Painting of Isaac Newton

Events during Newton’s lifetime:

  1. The English Civil War (August 22, 1642 – September 3, 1651): The English Civil War took place between supporters of Charles I and opposing groups of Charles’s kingdoms in the British Isles over Englannd’s governance and issues of religious freedoms. The war ended with the execution of Charles I, leading to the coronation of Oliver Cromwell.
  2. The Great Plague of London (1665 – 1666): The Great Plague of London was the last major outbreak of the bubonic plague to occur in England and killed an estimated 100,0000 people, almost a quarter of London’s population. 

People alive during Newton’s lifetime:

  1. Johann Sebastian Bach (March 31, 1685 – July 28, 1750): Bach was a German composer and musician and is known today as one of the greatest composers in music history. He is known for his orchestral music from cello suites and sonatas, to keyboard and organ works. 

Reflecton

It was very interesting to explore the historical context and events that unfolded during the lives of these famous astronomers. It gave me a totally new perspective and glimpse into this transformative period where so much scientific discovery was taking place. It’s also interesting that thanks to Einstein’s work, we now know that some of Newton’s views of gravity were a bit underdeveloped and didn’t reflect the true dynamics going on for every scenario, like Mecurry’s peculiar orbit around the Sun. 

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