Galileo in Context

Posted on February 4, 2015 by bryancm1

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

GalileoMoon2

Galileo Galilei was born into an era where the Aristotelian notion of a perfect universe dominated astronomic thought and the Roman Catholic Church dominated all knowledge. Rather than fall prey to these traditional views of the universe, Galileo was a scientific pioneer that would pave the way to a picture of the universe based on observation rather than strictly theological notions.

Up until Galileo’s discoveries, Copernicus’s heliocentric model of the universe fell largely on deaf ears. The universe, as proposed by Aristotle, was seen to be perfect with Earth at its center. Galileo was monumental in proving that the “heavens” weren’t necessarily perfect. He first did so by noting that the surface of the moon was filled with mountains and craters, not a smooth sphere. He later observed sunspots on our sun, again disproving that everything in the universe was perfect. Galileo also made a discovery that would directly lend credibility to the heliocentric model. Galileo observed moons orbiting Jupiter implying that not everything needed to orbit the Earth.

Galileo would suffer criticism from the Church following his publications. He died in 1642 under house arrest after being forced to recant his claims. It was not for another 16 years that the Church began to allow works supporting a heliocentric universe.

Source: The History Channel

What else was happening during this time?

Shakespeare’s Hamlet was published in 1601. Hamlet is perhaps Shakespeare’s most famous play and remains a contender for the greatest piece of literature ever written. From it derives the popular quote, “To be, or not to be.” It continues to inspire modern day adaptations such as Disney’s Lion King.

The first permanent American colonial settlement of Jamestown was established in 1607. 66 of the 104 settlers died in the first 8 months since its establishment.

King James I of England (also known as King James VI of Scotland) was born in 1566 and died in 1625. Under his reign, a Church of England sponsored version of the Bible would be translated – appropriately titled the Authorized King James Version. He would also see the failed “Gunpowder Plot” against parliament of 5 November, 1605, in which Guy Fawkes would be forever immortalized.

The early 17th century held great promise. While this time period is of course not limited to the above events, these are all names and events we grew up learning about. A new precedent was being set with regards to literature. The British empire was expanding its borders into the future American homeland. So too was Galileo doing his part in revolutionizing astronomy. It is through his work that we were able to move forward to an accurate model of the solar system and beyond.

Image Source: Open Culture


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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by jclyncmp

2. Galileo Galilei was an extremely important figure in astronomy. He was the first person to use a telescope to observe the sky and publish his results. He discovered the four satellites around Jupiter. The discovery of the moons showed that everything did not revolve around the Earth. This provided compelling evidence in support of the Copernican system (heliocentric model) versus the standing geocentric model of our solar system (Baalke).

3.

A)In 1607, Jamestown, Virginia was established as the first permanent English colony on American mainland.

In 1618, the Thirty Years’ War started. The Protestants revolt against Catholic oppression. Denmark, Sweden, and France invade Germany during the later portion of the war.

B) Gian Lorenzo Bernini

  1. Born: December 7th, 1598
  2. Died: November 28th, 1680
  • Bernin was an Italian artist, most famous for his sculpting. He worked principally in Rome, Italy. He created many famous statues such as Apollo and Daphne (1622-25). He was commissioned by Pope Alexander VII to create the piazza leading to St Peter’s.

4. The time period I focused on was Galileo’s lifetime, which occurred during the height of The Renaissance. The Renaissance literally means, “re-birth”. It was an explosion of art, literature and science. Galileo lived during the height of the Renaissance and contributing to the great scientific accomplishments of the era. It is mind-blowing to recognize that Galileo and the great Renaissance sculptor, Bernini, lived during the same time. I often think of Galileo as a modern figure because he was such a progressive for science, meanwhile Bernini was dedicated to preserving the ancient Greco-Roman period. It was very enlightening to realize that Galileo and Bernini were contemporaries.


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Historical Astronomers in Context: Isaac Newton

Posted on February 3, 2015 by agiantchicken

(Image from Wikipedia)

Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 – March 20, 1727) was a born a poor Englishman who attended Trinity College in Cambridge in order to try and improve his socioeconomic standing. He gained an interest in the world around him after witnessing an apple drop from a tree to the ground. At that moment, he came to the realization that the force that dropped the apple to the ground (gravity) was also the same force keeping the moon in orbit around the Earth. Among his many achievements were putting an end to the notion of Aristotelian physics, helping to develop the foundations for modern astrophysics, and developing his three laws of motion. These three laws also helped to give credence to Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, and gave rise to modern perceptions of the universe.

Several interesting things happened in Newton’s lifetime which greatly changed the course of history. First was The Birth of the Enlightenment (in the late 1600s), which was a period of great philosophical and scientific achievements in Europe which brought rise to the contemporary era. Another major event in Newton’s lifetime was the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, which was a major political/religious conflict between two religious monarchs, the Habsburgs (who fought for Catholic Europe), and France (who only fought for Protestant Europe due to their hatred of the Habsburgs). The end of the war brought with it the Peace of Westphalia, which signaled the rise of the modern nation-state and ideas of a state sovereign to feudal rulers.

During this time, another major figure was King Louis XIV of France (September 5, 1638 – September 1, 1715), who reigned from 1643 until his death, was Europe’s longest reigning monarch. He helped develop France into the strongest power in Europe during the Enlightenment, and also helped usher in a period of great artistic progression and scientific discovery in France and beyond.

What I found particularly interesting about this assignment was seeing the amount of activity going on within the figures’ lifetimes. More than that was how each successive event seemed to reinforce the previous one, such as how Newton’s discoveries supported Kepler’s findings, and how Newton’s work eventually led to the rise of the Enlightenment. As a fan of history, I found this assignment to be not only a great refresher for information I had previously learned, but also a way to learn more about things I might not have known.


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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by ctogrye

The astronomer I chose was Isaac Newton, who was born on December 25, 1642 and died March 20, 1726. Some important historical events also coincided with my astronomer. In 1649, Charles I was beheaded by Oliver Cromwell and supporters during the English civil war. This precipitated the Interregnum, the period in which England did not have a monarch ruling over it. In 1688 the Glorious Revolution occurs in England. King James II is overthrown by the Dutch William of Orange who ascends the throne with James’ daughter Mary to become King and Queen William and Mary. One historical figure which also lived during Newton’s day was Gottfried Leibniz, born July 1, 1646; died November 14, 1716. This famous mathematician and philosopher is known for being the other independent developer of calculus (although some dispute his claim). He is also famous for suggesting that the world in which we live is the “best possible world” in which we could live. I thought it was very interesting learning about the context in which Newton grew up in. At about only 7 years old, Newton bore witness to Oliver Cromwell’s bloody reign where many Catholics were persecuted. He again lived through another upheaval in England in the form of the Glorious Revolution. On top of this, he also lived during the time of many other great thinkers like John Locke and Gottfried Leibniz.


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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by abbeyrstephens

The astronomer I chose to look closer at was Tycho Brahe! He was born on December 14, 1546 and died on October 24, 1601 at the age of 54.

During his life, two major events that happened were the Massacre of Novgorod by Ivan the Terrible and the founding of Buenos Aires by Juan de Garay.

The Massacre of Novgorod was an attack by Tsar Ivan “the Terrible” on the city of Novgorod. He was looking for supposed traitors of the crown. This attack was the most brutal and had the most casualties of this campaign, and brought about the fall of the entire city.

In 1580, Juan de Garay, a Spanish conquistador, already having established Indian villages and local governments in modern-day Argentina, founded the city of Buenos Aires. This city became a major port for the South American continent and a major city in modern times.

Francis Drake was also alive during the same time as Brahe. Sir Francis Drake was an English sea captain who led the world’s second circumnavigation. He was also key in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Putting things into perspective like this assignment makes you do is always an eye-opening experience! Since we tend to study famous individuals and famous events on their own, as “stand-alones”, it can be difficult to realize that all of these things are happening on the same world and more often than not, at the same time. I never really thought about the fact that many of the most famous astronomers were alive at the same time, and they may have even corresponded with each other! Also, while all of these amazing astronomical advances were happening, the rest of the world was happening as well. Sir Frances Drake was circumnavigating the world and defeating the Spanish Armada, Ivan the Terrible was terrorizing the Russian people, and explorers were claiming the new worlds of North and South America. These are all things that we know have happened in the past, but to think they all happened at the same time, and that they probably impacted the lives of the astronomers we are discussing!


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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by oliviasn

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Copernicus was vital to astronomy because he radically transformed the perception of Earth’s position in the universe so much that the Copernican Revolution helped form the origin of modern science. Based off of Aristarchus’ work, Copernicus’ calculations of each planet’s orbital period around the Sun as well as each planet’s relative distance from the sun in regard to Earth-Sun distances convinced him that the Solar System must be Sun-centered, not Earth-centered. This heliocentric model is regarded as a groundbreaking revelation today, but Copernicus’ refusal to accept that heavenly motion does not have to be in perfect circles resulted in a lack of acceptance of this idea during his lifetime. Nonetheless, Copernicus laid the groundwork for many others, such as Galileo and Newton, to advance astronomy even further.

Creation of Major Artwork 

A few major Renaissance artworks were produced in 1503. Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa and Michelangelo sculpted the David. Beyond being simply magnificent, these pieces embody the prevalence and importance of art during the Renaissance.

Reformation and the Church of England 

Reformation began in 1535 after the Pope excommunicated Henry VIII. This excommunication led to Henry VIII appointing himself as the head of the English Church.

Niccolo Machiavelli (May 3, 1469-June 21, 1527).

Machiavelli was a revolutionary political figure and philosopher who expressed the necessities of deceit, brutality, ambition, and deviousness in politics in his book The Prince. Machiavelli is still studied today and “Machiavellianism” can be used to negatively describe politicians who act in this heartless manner.

It is very interesting to note the influx of new ideas and ways of thinking as well as just how much was going on and changing in the world in which Copernicus lived. Not only did Copernicus’ work help transform astronomy by introducing the idea of a heliocentric universe, but the work of many others helped transform many other arenas, from Da Vinci and Michelangelo and Renaissance artwork to Henry VIII and religion to Machiavelli and politics.


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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by matthewrbirnbaum

Isaac Newton – January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727

In 1692 in France a severe winter and too wet of spring a summer caused a very poor harvest and led to a famine. 2 million people died as a result of the famine.

In 1718 the city of New Orleans was founded my the French Mississippi Company, under the lead of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. The city was named after the Duke of Orleans.

Benjamin Franklin, January 17, 1706 – April 17, 1790, was alive for the later years of Sir Isaac Newton’s life. Benjamin Franklin was the master of all trades from being a scientist to polymath to diplomat. He was a major figure in the American Enlightenment is known for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity.

The time in which Isaac Newton lived was a marvelous time for learning and knowledge. While he was exploring the universe Ben Franklin was discovering electricity. America was very young at this time and yet we were learning about things way beyond Earth. It amazes me that all the land hadn’t been settled and people were exploring the universe. Newton had a lot of information to build on but was still one of the most important, if not the most important astronomers and thinkers in the history of the world.


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The world orbiting around Kepler

Posted on February 3, 2015 by lindenmuthadam
  • Johannes Kepler was extremely important to astronomy because he first decribed the laws that govern orbital motion, still in use today. It is because of his laws that we are able to predict planetary orbits, fly satellites, and do a host of incredible feats. His work set the stage for later astronomers like Newton and Einstein.
  • In 1603, King James VI of Scotland creates what we now know as Great Britain by uniting the kingdoms of Scotland and England into one after his cousin Queen Elizabeth died. This union has preserved for centuries.
  • In 1607, English settlers landed on Jamestown Island, Virginia to create what would be the first continuous English settlement in the Americas. This set the stage for many years of immigration and, 170 years later, a new country.
  • William Shakespeare lived around the same time as Kepler, and was also extremely influential in his field. He is widely cited as the greatest writer in the history of the English language, and coined many popular phrases we use today. Without Shakespeare, expressions like “hot-blooded”, “woe is me”, and “up in arms” would not exist.
  • Kepler’s lifetime was a wildly progressive period for the Western World, with advances in science, literature, and exploration. It’s easy to see how an important thinker like Kepler is largely swept under the rug in terms of popularity, when he had so much to compete with. This period marked the beginning in an explosion of knowledge which continues to this day.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by conorastr201

Johannes Kepler is remembered mostly for his discovery that the orbits of stellar objects are elliptical, as well as for his laws of motion, which he did using the observations gathered by Tycho Brahe. His work helped merge the ideas of physics and astronomy together. Additionally, he was prominent in the field of optics and developed a new version of the refracting telescope.

1607 – The first English colony is established on the North American mainland at Jamestown, Virginia. This marks the beginning of what would become the United States of America.

1582 – Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian calendar. This calendar is still the international standard used today, which is pretty impressive considering it is over 400 years old.

There was a lot that went on during the early 1600s! Two incredibly important figures of astronomy were working simultaneously, one of the most famous books was being published, America was being settled, England was in turmoil with the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, Protestantism was grabbing hold, Francis Drake was circumnavigating the globe, the list goes on. They make up some of Man’s greatest accomplishments, and they were all happening concurrently, and they all still affect us to this day.


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Kepler in Historical Context

Posted on February 3, 2015 by dillonkoval

Johannes Kepler

  1. Plymouth Landing: 1620
    1. This was the arrival of the Mayflower at Plymouth Rock. A very major and early event in American history.
  2. John Napier discovers logarithms: 1614
    1. Logarithms are integral to a lot of current scientific theory. Their discovery allows for very complex problems to be solved using fairly simple algorithms.
  3. Pope Gregory XIII : Born January 7, 1502, Died April 10, 1585
    1. Pope Gregory XIII is important because he commissioned and integrated the Gregorian calendar in 1582. This calendar is still used to this day.

This is a good reminder of what was happening in the world while Kepler was analyzing the heavens. That the Pilgrims were just landing in The New World when Kepler was 43 and logarithms, a basis of modern mathematics, were just discovered was surprising because it really shows how little technology was available to him. To achieve such complex results from incredible amounts of data at this time really shows the commitment he had to his purpose.


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