Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by alicebyrnes

Johannes Kepler (Born Dec 27th, 1571 and died Nov 15th, 1630) made a vital contribution to astronomy in the form of his three laws of gravitation. His laws, which he did not consider “laws” at the time, were based off a theological framework.  Kepler’s work with Tycho Brahe let him access the data to discover and publish, in 1609, the first two laws: that planets have elliptical orbits and that those orbits sweep out equal area in equal time. He published Harmonice Mundi, which contained the third law detailing the exact relationship between a planet’s orbital speed and its distance from the Sun, later in 1619.

Jamestown was first settled in 1607 by a group of men and boys. Over the next few years, the settlement dealt with disease, famine, and conflict with the local Powhatan people. Two major events occurred in 1619: the first representative legislative assembly was called for, and the first African people were forcibly brought to Virginia and enslaved.

Shakespeare also was also alive and active during this time. His career jump-started with his first published works in 1593 and 1594, and his ensuing involvement in the London theater gained him wealth and popularity. His career continued until his death in 1616. As we well know, his works continue to profoundly play a role in and affect society today.

Even if things like the colonization of the Americas and Shakespeare’s career aren’t directly affected by astronomical discoveries, it does very much help put them into context. The basis of our country: including the representative government we still have, and the slave trade that would haunt us for centuries, were being formed. Things like the astronomical discoveries and Shakespeare’s work significantly contributed to the founding and development of America, which we can see the effects of today.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

Changing the Status Quo: Galileo And More

Posted on February 2, 2023 by noahherrero
Picture acquired from BBC

Galileo Galilei (b. February 15th, 1564, d. January 8th, 1642), can be considered one of the most influential scientist in history solely for his contributions to both Physics such as disproving Aristotelian motion, and principles of relativity.

However, some of his greatest accomplishments comes from astronomy. When presented with the newly made telescope, he spent two years to improving its magnifying power by 21 times. With this newfound power, he was able to see celestial bodies normally invisible to the naked eye, such as Jupiter’s four largest moons: Ganymede, Europa, Io, and Callisto, which are now known as the Galilean moons. Beyond that, he observed sunspots, and most importantly of all the Phases of Venus. At the time the common consensus behind motion in the solar system was the Ptolemaic geocentric theory, where all planets and the sun orbit earth; however, Venus having phases is something that can only exist if the controversial heliocentric theory was correct. This controversial take got him in quite some trouble with the Roman Catholic Church, and despite the danger he held to his beliefs beneath the churches nose.

During Galileo’s lifetime there was a plentiful amount of influential figures and radical changes. Some of the events that happened during his lifetime was:

Writing and Signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620 – The document, signed November 11th, 1620 by pilgrims aboard the ship of the same name, marked the first official self-governing colony in the New World in Plymouth Massachusetts.

Ending of the Warring States Period/Start of Edo Period, ~1603 – The Tokugawa shogunate was able to centralize and stabilize Japan. To preserve peace, the nation acquired a fierce isolationist ideology, banning faiths like Christianity.

Galileo’s Contemporaries:

William Shakespeare (b.~April 23rd, 1564, d. April 23rd, 1616) – One of the most influential writers with his plays and sonnets covering a variety of themes and topics. Responsible for the creation of 1,700 words in the English language such as “bedroom” and “obscene”.

John Locke (b. August 29th, 1632, d. Oct 28th, 1704) – An enlightenment thinker who believes that everyone has natural rights that cannot be infringed. Locke’s ideas have become a core aspect of many governments of the Western World.

Francis Bacon (b. January 22, 1561, d. April 9, 1626) – An English philosopher, whose most well-known attribute is the creation of the Scientific method for which all modern experiments and theory are based on. 

Reflection:

A pitfall I fall into a lot regarding history is believing that everything occurs in isolation of each other. However, looking at the bigger picture tells a completer and more interconnected story. The 16th-17th century was a period where people like Galileo, Shakespeare, and Bacon began to question and iterate beyond the Greco-Roman standard of science, philosophy, and literature. The more the status quo was questioned, the harsher the Roman Catholic church or any sole power became, leading groups to leave and isolate themselves like those aboard Mayflower and the Tokugawa Shogunate, or retort like Locke. That explanation only connects to the contemporaries I mentioned; there were plenty of figures just outside of Galileo’s lifespan showing the influence he had on the world. Viewing history with the grander perspective is not only a cool way to further explore many historical events but also shows how people like Galileo Galilei were a part of a greater movement of change and enlightenment.

• Noah Herrero

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Changing the Status Quo: Galileo And More

Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by Melanie Marszal

Nicholas Copernicus was born February 19, 1473 and died May 24, 1543.

The Protestant Reformation began in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517. It was a movement started by Martin Luther, who published a document called the 95 Theses where he challenged the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation sparked creation of and migration to Christian religions other than Catholicism and weakened the power of the Catholic Church.

The Polish-Teutonic War occurred in Poland Copernicus’ home country, from 1519-1521. The Teutonic Order was a Catholic militia. In January 1520, the Teutonic Order raided Frombork, Poland, which is where Copernicus had a residence. It is likely that some of Copernicus’ astronomical instruments were destroyed during this raid.

A historical figure who lived at the same time as Copernicus was Pope Paul III. This was the leader of the Catholic Church at the time Copernicus published his book about his heliocentric theory. Pope Paul III was significant because Copernicus dedicated the book to him, and asked him to protect Copernicus from potential backlash to his ideas.

It is interesting to learn the historical context of past scientific discoveries, because oftentimes the current social/political issues of the time affected the motives for or reception of how ideas were communicated. In the case of Copernicus, and likely all of the astronomers listed above, one of the largest influences on their work was religion. In the 1400s and 1500s, religion was still crucial to every aspect or society, and closely interwoven with politics, science, philosophy, and daily life. Although Genesis may not necessarily say that the earth was created to be at the center of the universe and that it revolves around the sun, at this point in history that is what society believed. Since the configuration of the universe was viewed as a deeply religious concept, any change to beliefs about it threatened to try to undermine religion, creating a huge uproar. It is believed that this concern may be one of the major reasons Copernicus did not publish his book detailing his heliocentric theory until right before his death. This would also explain why he dedicated the book to the current pope, Pope Paul III. Although he had no way to tell for sure how the religious public would feel about his book, and some other Catholic figures he had talked to actually approved of and appreciated his work, his concerns definitely make sense in the historical context. With the Protestant Reformation beginning about 20 years before he published his book, religion was already in a bit of an unstable position. Although Protestants were those who were in favor of shaking things up in the Church, they were actually the first ones to attack the ideas of Copernicus. Although the historical contexts of some scientists may aid or inspire their work, in the case of Copernicus, it seems that the state of the world was a major hindrance to the communication of his ideas.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by Trevor Pillow
Isaac Newton lookin’ fly
  1. Nicholas Copernicus
    1. Born: February 19, 1473 
    2. Died: May 24, 1543
  2. Galileo Galilei
    1. Born: February 15, 1564
    2. Death: January 8, 1642
  3. Johannes Kepler
    1. December 27, 1571
    2. November 15, 1630
  4. Isaac Newton
    1. January 4, 1643
    2. March 31, 1727
  5. Tycho Brahe
    1. December 14, 1546
    2. October 24, 1601

Kepler, Galileo, and Brahe all lived at the same time during the late 1500’s for 30 years. Galileo and Kepler were then alive for another 29 years..

Isaac Newton is undoubtedly the most impactful of these astronomers. Newton invented calculus, pioneered classical physics, and derived the theory of gravitation. Calculus and physics are essential tools which are foundational to how we understand the universe. He also created color theory and studied how light breaks down into its component wavelengths when it passes through a prism. The light spectrum is very important for analyzing the chemical composition of stars, and it also allows us to study the atmospheres of the planets in the solar system.

  1. Major historical events
    1. On 24 October, 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was signed. This marked the end of the 30 Years’ War, which is very important because it is considered the first political war. Prior to the 30 Years’ War, conflict was determined mainly by religious differences.
    2. In 1688, Britain citizens of experienced the Glorious Revolution. The previous rulers of the British Isles James II and James VII were deposed by the Dutch William and Mary of Orange. The Glorious Revolution is considered the most recent successful invasion of Britain. 

Other notable people at the time: Louis XIV

Louis XIV of France ruled from 1654 to 1715. Known as the Sun King, Louis XIV is one of the most successful monarchs in history. His style of ruling, known as absolutism, was very effective in maintaining France as a European power.

The 17th and 18th centuries are very interesting to learn about because they were incredibly eventful eras. Decisions were made that still impact us today, and the foundations for many important philosophies in science, mathematics, and politics were laid. It’s also interesting to learn about this time because it feels somewhat removed from modern life. We can look at events like the rise of the Sun King as distant history while still being able to read detailed accounts from the time.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by niqretnuh

Astronomer: Nicolaus Copernicus

  • February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543
  • He was important to astronomy because he brought forth the heliocentric model. The most accepted model at the time was Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model where the earth is in the center of the universe, while the rest of the planets and stars revolve around it. However, Copernicus came up with a system in which the Sun is in the center while the Earth is simply one of the astronomical bodies around it. While Copernicus’ system did not increase the accuracy of prediction compared to the older model, it is among the first developed theories that started to depart from the Earth-centric model, and led the way for future, more accurate astronomical models.

Historical Events around the time of this Astronomer

  • (1) Columbus’ crew found the New World in 1492. Sent by the Spanish, Columbus was sent on a tour to find a more efficient way to India and China(through water), where most of the Globe’s wealth was concentrated. Columbus reached an area of land where he thought was India but later discovered to be a continent that was never known to the other parts of the world–the Americas, or the New World.
  • (2) The fall of the Aztec Empire. The Spanish conquistadors defeated the Aztec Empire and its capital Tenochtitlan. The advanced armory as well as disease made the outnumbered Spanish conquistadors succeed in their conquest. 

Historical figure

  • Martin Luther. Martin Luther is known as the most important thinker in the Protestant reformation. The “Ninety-five theses” published by Luther was essential for the wave of reformation in Europe that was a major blow to the organized Catholic religion.

A Brief Reflection

  • This is a major period of change – the scientific revolution following Copernicus, the discovery of a new world and the subsequent conquest and colonization, as well as the spark for new forms of Christianity that challenged unity in Europe “the United Christendom”. It is interesting to link major breakthroughs in Astronomy and Science with other political and religious activities.
Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

Historical Astronomers in Context: Kepler

Posted on February 2, 2023 by dromalley
The astronomer Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer who was born on December 27 1571 and died 15th of November 1630. During Kepler’s lifetime, one major event was the Bohemian Revolt in 1618, kickstarted by the Third Defenestration of Prague, which launched the Holy Roman Empire into chaos and began the thirty years war. This war caused untold destruction across Europe, and one small side effect was a significant reduction of spending on arts and sciences. Also during his lifetime, the novel Don Quixote by Cervantes was published in two parts in 1605 and 1610 and is often regarded as the first modern novel. One of Kepler’s other famous contemporaries was the artist Michelangelo da Caravaggio (29 September, 1571- 18 July, 1610), an Italian painter who helped pioneer the Baroque style. Caravaggio made revolutionary improvements in many aspects of his work, especially his technique of lighting and heavy shadow, or Chiaroscuro, which would become emblematic of Baroque painting. In learning the context of these famous astronomers, I was most surprised by how quickly science progressed from questioning heliocentrism to the fundamentals of our modern understanding of the world. The fact that Newton was born the same year that Galileo died, for example, was astounding to me as I had always thought of the two as much further apart due to the huge leaps in knowledge of that era. Overall, I’m leaving this assignment with a much clearer timeline for this period of astronomy.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context: Kepler

Historical Figures in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by aaronxu041009

Galileo Galilei, the father of modern science

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a famous Italian astronomer with significant contributions to physics, mathematics and astronomy, and was crowned the “father of modern science”. With his refined refracting telescopes, Galileo observed the Moon and deduced that our satellite was covered in mountains and craters, opposing the traditional view that heavenly bodies were perfect spheres. In 1610, Galileo, again with his refracting telescopes, observed that four moons were orbiting Jupiter. This observation was astronomically revolutionary and buries a nail in the coffin of the geocentric model, and in honor of the great scientist, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto were named the Galilean satellites. Galileo also observed the phases of Venus, which confirms the prediction of the heliocentric model that it would exhibit all phases, just like our Moon. Saturn’s ring and Neptune were also observed by Galileo, though Galileo did not know what he was looking at back then. Galileo’s insightful discoveries gave rise to modern astronomy, making him one of the most important astronomers of all time.

Contemporary Events!

King James VI of Scotland was made King James I of England and Ireland, after Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, with the two nations sharing a king for the first time. Later in his rule, King James I contributed to the creation of King James’ version of the bible, which spread the English language around the world.

In 1628, Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius discovered the law of refraction, which relates the angle of incidence and refraction to refractive indices and phase velocities.

Monteverdi, the great Italian composer

Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) was an Italian musician who was one of the most important figures in the transition from Renaissance to Baroque. Monteverdi wrote music in prima pratica (Italian for ‘first practice’), which was more of a polyphonic style like that of Palestrina. Later in his life he wrote music in seconda pratica, a more excited style with Baroque characteristics in form and melody. Monteverdi was also a significant figure in the development of opera, writing famous pieces like L’Orfeo.

Reflection

Galileo was a revolutionary character in astronomy, physics, mathematics and engineering. It was interesting to learn how his specific observations brought forth modern astronomy. Surprisingly, at about the same time period, composers like Monteverdi promoted the change from the Renaissance period to the Baroque period in the musical world, which was not unlike the geocentric to heliocentric change Galileo invoked in the science world. Many other major events happened in the world around Galileo’s lifetime, such as King James I’s rule of England and Scotland, the Thirty Years’ War in Europe, the end of the Chinese Ming Dynasty that had flourished for 300 years, and later in the 17th century the invention of calculus. Learning that all this happened around the same time was truly fascinating.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , , | Comments Off on Historical Figures in Context

Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 2, 2023 by shuhuaiwang

Johannes Kepler（12/27/1571 – 11/15/1630）

In 1609, Kepler published the first two laws of planetary motion: the orbit of planetary motion is ellipse; in equal time, the areas swept by the line connecting the sun and the moving planets are equal. In In 1619, he produced his third law, which says that the square of the circular motion period of each planet around the sun and the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit are proportional.

I think this event is very interesting. Kepler is one of my favorite astronomers. Among the many hits, I especially like Kepler’s universe model. The most amazing thing about Kepler’s universe model is that he uses mathematics to explain the observed universe. While previous astronomers had limited themselves to recording the observed positions of planets, Kepler went further and sought mathematical models that could explain the observed phenomena. This is a very important process of the scientific method. Of course, we all know today that this model is wrong. There are not only six planets, but the orbital distances obtained are only approximate.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 1, 2023 by georgeboardman20

Tycho Brahe was an aspiring Danish lawyer when he first became fascinated in astronomy. He was reportedly inspired by a total solar eclipse then later a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn, which is where his practical advancements in astronomy came from. The Ptolemaian and Copernican models were off by several days on predicting the conjunction, so Brahe set to right this. Upon the death of his father and uncle, Brahe set up an observatory to accumulate observations of the sky. His notable accomplishments include compiling data on the movement of planets in the sky, locations of stars, and the observation of a new star that appeared in the distant sky, upsetting preconceived notions of an unchanging sky. This prompted him to propose a system where planets and stars orbited the sun and the still stationary Earth. He did all of this with simple tools, recording instruments, and his eyes. He was born in 1546 and died in 1601. Source: Tycho Brahe

In 1588 the Spanish Armada sailed on England and Queen Elizabeth. Following the religious turmoil between English Catholics and Protestants within the country, the Spanish sought to exploit this by deposing the Protestant Elizabeth and reinstating a Catholic monarch. This had partly arisen due to Elizabeth’s support for a Protestant revolt in the Habsburg controlled Netherlands and the establishment of the Dutch Republic. The Spanish invasion fleet was decisively defeated, and England established naval primacy until 1900 with the rise of the United States Navy, with England also acquiring implicit right to colonization in North America. Source: Spanish Armada

In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg established a legal right to Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire. It was a peace settlement between the Emperor Charles V and followers of the Augsburg Confession. It established legal right to rule by princes of non-Catholic denomination, only Lutherans though. It arose by conversion of electors of the empire to Lutheranism and thus codifying legal rights for religious toleration. It set a precedent for political federalism and self-determination of local rulers. Source: Peace of Augsburg

Ivan Vasilyevich, colloquially known in English as Ivan the Terrible, is Grand Prince of Moscow and later the first Tsar of Russia. Despite increases in the prestige of the Slavic and Orthodox world, such as more government centralization and conquests of Muslim rump Mongol states in the East such as Kazan in 1552, he instituted a reign of terror over his new realm. He executed thousands of threats to his power base, established the first Russian secret police, and even murdered his own son Ivan in anger. He’s notable as a forebearer of Russian autocracy and the future of centralization and police state in the Soviet Union under his ideological predecessor Josef Stalin. Source: Ivan the Terrible

The study of history is the study of us today if we were put into a different culture or time. Ivan the Terrible has a historical analogue in Josef Stalin. The Spanish Armada is strikingly similar to Trafalgar. The Peace of Augsburg reminds me of the Treaty of Versailles. I didn’t particularly learn much from this exercise because I’m a history major, but it does drive home the importance of concurrent events. Being able to mentally scroll over a map to see that Elizabeth I was ruling England at the same time the Danish Tycho Brahe sought to peer into the celestial realm, or some degree of religious tolerance swept over Europe. Incidentally, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, a successor of Charles V who signed the Peace of Augsburg, patronized Tycho in Prague. In any case, humans remain the same, some seeking knowledge, power, prestige, peace, war, glory, wealth. When Tycho peered into the sky political powers influenced his study of the sky, as do they today with NASA.

Posted in Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context

To Be Circular, or Elliptical: That Was Kepler’s Question

Posted on February 1, 2023 by Europa
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Source

Johannes Kepler was an astronomer and mathematician best known for his development of the three laws of planetary motion. The first reflected a major upheaval in astronomical thought at the time: that planetary orbits are elliptical, with the Sun located at one of each orbit’s two foci, rather than perfectly circular. The second is that an imaginary line drawn between the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas during equal time intervals as the planet orbits, mandating that planets orbit faster when they are closer to the Sun and slower when they are further from the Sun. The third is that the period of a planet’s orbit around the Sun squared is proportional to the planet’s orbit’s semimajor axis cubed. Kepler’s mathematical work was largely built off of his mentor, Tycho Brahe’s, observations of planetary positions that spanned decades. His laws of planetary motion were also one of the foundations of Isaac Newton’s work developing the law of universal gravitation.

Contemporary Events:

  • 1611: The King James Version of the Bible was published in England.
  • 1620: The Mayflower arrived at Plymouth, Massachusetts, bringing English Pilgrims to the New World.

Contemporary Figure:

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) lived at the same time as Kepler for 45 years. Shakespeare is often regarded to be the greatest writer in the English language who ever lived, and is responsible for many plays and sonnets, spanning comedies, histories, tragedies, and romances, that are still studied today. 

A Brief Reflection:

One of my sources included a timeline that listed, right in a row, Kepler publishing his laws of planetary motion (1609), Galileo Galilei observing the moons of Jupiter (1610), and the KJV of the Bible being published (1611). It was interesting to see the juxtaposition of astronomy and religion–sects of society that at times have been inextricably intertwined, and at other times at moral odds. Kepler himself was devoutly religious and incorporated religious themes into his astronomical work, yet his idea of the planetary orbits being elliptical was in contrast to earlier notions that heavenly bodies must move in perfect circles. In my research, I learned that Kepler was actually Lutheran instead of Catholic, which made me wonder whether different divisions of Christianity felt differently about the astronomical advancements of the 1400s-1500s.

Posted in Class, Historical | Tagged , , | Comments Off on To Be Circular, or Elliptical: That Was Kepler’s Question