Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 9, 2022 by brendanehle
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      • Nicolaus Copernicus
        1. Born: February 19, 1473
        2. Died: May 24, 1543
      • Johannes Kepler
        1. Born: December 27, 1571
        2. Died: November 15, 1630
      • Tycho Brahe
        1. Born: December 14, 1546
        2. Died: October 24, 1601
      • Galileo Galilei
        1. Born: February 15, 1564
        2. Died: January 8, 1642
      • Isaac Newton
        1. Born: January 4, 1643
        2. Died: March 31, 1727
    • Kepler, Brahe, and Galileo all lived at the same time. They were all alive for 30 years from 1571 to 1601. Kepler and Galileo were alive together for 59 years from 1571 to 1630. Galileo and Brahe were alive together for 37 years from 1564 to 1601.

Nicolaus Copernicus is best known for Heliocentrism, the idea that the sun was at the center of the universe rather than Earth. Before Copernicus’s model, Geocentrism was the primary belief in the world. After Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, which is the book that explains the Heliocentric model, there was much backlash and very few people believed him. The theory was not widely believed until after 1700.

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    • In 1492, Christopher Columbus went on a voyage departing from Spain to find a way to the East Indies. He unknowingly found the Americas instead of the East Indies.
    • In 1498, Vasco de Gama traveled around Africa to India. He was the first person to establish trade routes between Europe and Asia through sea routes. 

Martin Luther was also alive during the life of Copernicus. Martin Luther was a German friar who is best known for starting the protestant reformation. Luther rejected many things the Catholic Church was teaching and believed the church was corrupt. He wrote down his grievances and titled his work the Ninety-Five theses.

From doing this research I learned some things I would have never known otherwise. I did not know how close together these astronomers lived. Also, so many important things happened during this time, astronomically and otherwise. Not only did scientists make great strides in learning how the solar system works, but also there were massive strides in exploration and cultural advancement. However, I do not think this is unique to this time frame. If you dig deep into any time period you will find very important events.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 9, 2022 by josephmaquino9
Figure 1. Portrait of Johannes Kepler.

Johannes Kepler (December 27th, 1571 – November 15, 1630) helped the world of astronomy and the general field of sciences in several key ways. First, Kepler utilized Tycho Brahe’s data concerning the position of stars and planets in the sky during different days in the year to determine that the orbit of Mars was elliptical rather than circular. Mars was specifically selected as predictions concerning its position in the sky produced the most errors. Kepler’s discoveries eventually led him to establish Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. The three involved laws are as follows:

Law #1: Planets orbit the Sun in an elliptical path with the Sun residing at the focus.

Law #2: The radius vector (which is defined as the distance from an orbiting object to the source of gravity) represents equivalent areas in equal time periods. In other words, for orbiting objects to attain/sweep across an area at a constant rate, the objects increase in speed when the velocity vector is small and decreases in speed when the velocity vector is large.

Law #3: P2 = a3, where P is the period of the orbit, and a is the semi-major axis of the orbit.

Such laws led to Kepler being named “the father of celestial mechanics”. Additionally, Kepler was the first person to explain that the ocean tides are created by the Moon. Interestingly, Galileo did not approve of this explanation. Lastly, Kepler was the first to determine that the Sun rotates about its axis.

Historical Events:

(1606) The first permanent English colony of Jamestown, Virginia is established. This is also the time in which John Smith (leader of the Virginia Colony) was rescued from execution by Pocahontas.

(1618) The Thirty Years’ War begins. This war involved protestants fighting against catholic oppression (with most of the war occurring in the Holy Roman Empire).

Historical Figure:

Sir Francis Drake: Birth Date – c. 1540

Date of Death – January 28, 1596

Sir Drake was the first person to circumnavigate the Earth (or sail around the Earth) within one single expedition. This was a key action that initiated conflict between the English and Spanish over land on the western coast of North and South America.

Reflection:

Analyzing world events alongside the work in which Kepler performed really places into perspective how societies were advancing in the understanding of the sciences and in technology while the world was in constant conflict. Not only did these astronomers have to go against the Church (and risk their lives for it), but they had to compete with conflicting observations (just as Galileo disagreed with Kepler concerning the cause of the tides of the oceans). Lastly, even though the technology was advancing, I find it highly impressive that Kepler (and the other astronomers within this assignment) managed to collect highly accurate data and produce precise predictions of the positioning of planets, stars, etc. at a given time. That takes a great deal of patience and dedication.

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Johannes Kepler: Context

Posted on February 9, 2022 by solarelizabeth
Johannes Kepler, German astronomer - Stock Image H411/0268 ...
Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler was born December 27, 1571 and died November 15, 1630.

Johannes Kepler, continuing Brahe’s work, discovered that planetary orbits are ellipses with varying levels of eccentricity instead of perfect circles. This helped him predict planetary positions and discover three laws of planetary motion. Kepler’s discoveries helped solidify the theory that planets move around the sun and not the Earth. He even suggested that the sun influences planetary motion, with planets moving faster as they are near the sun and slower as they are farther away. His third law suggested that distant planets orbit the sun more slowly than near objects (Bennet et al., 2020).

During Kepler’s life, several significant historical events took place. First, in 1611, the King James Version of the Bible was published. Then, in 1618, the Thirty Years’ War began. Protestants resisted Catholic oppression. In 1620, Pilgrims arrive at Plymouth on the Mayflower. 

Queen Elizabeth 1 lived the same time as Kepler. She was born in 1533 and died in 1603. She was responsible for one of the “most glorious” reigns in English history as she chose a shrewd administration and inspired discovery and art. She also established the Church of England, which was a compromise between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.

I thought this exercise was interesting because it helped illustrate how our perceptions are built on the past and change over time. Kepler’s laws continue to inform our perceptions of planetary motion. The King James version of the Bible is still in use. Discoveries and ideologies refined five hundred years ago continue to be relevant. As society becomes more advanced, we make more scientific discoveries that support or disprove previous ones. Thus we are always refining our understanding of the world. I enjoyed seeing the 1500/1600s perspective of science and culture and considering how it is similar or different to today’s culture.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 9, 2022 by evang914
Galileo Galilei via Encyclopedia Britannica

2) Galileo (February 15, 1564 – January 8, 1642) was incredibly important to the progress and history of astronomy. He carried on the work done by Kepler in helping prove that the Copernican heliocentric model of our solar system was correct rather than the Aristotelian geocentric. He did this by disproving many of the objections people had with the heliocentric model. Using the principle of what became Newton’s 1st Law of Motion, he showed objects on Earth would not get left behind if Earth was moving as Aristotle asserted. This alone nearly overturned Aristotle’s view of physics and the solar system. However, he also used his telescope to show that the “heavens” were imperfect and that stars were further away than Tycho believed, and, thus, parallax may not be detectable by the naked eye. Despite all his evidence, the Church forced him to recant his claims.[1]

3) In 1607, colonists established the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown in what became Virginia.[2]

In 1632, Mughal emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the building of the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum of his wife’s tomb. It is regarded as one of the architectural masterpieces of the world and was fully completed in 1653.[3]

Miguel de Cervantes (September 29, 1547 – April 22, 1616) lived for a large period of Galileo’s life. Famous for being the author of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha (or, in English, The Ingenious Gentleman Sir Quixote of La Mancha), Cervantes is often credited with writing the first modern novel and a pioneer of Western literature. Don Quixote today is still regarded as one of the greatest novels ever written.[4]

4) Reflecting on this assignment, I gained a greater appreciation for the incredible ability of early astronomers to make advancements in the field with such rudimentary instruments. It is easy to look back now and ask how one could so easily be attached to the idea of the perfect heavens or a geocentric universe against strong evidence. But understanding their discoveries in context with the time period and the societal forces in play against them expands the window into not only the technological difficulties of astronomical exploration, but the societal barriers as well.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 9, 2022 by gcomartin

Brahe was important to astronomy because he developed astronomical instruments and was uniquely accurate in determining and charting the locations of celestial bodies before the advent of the telescope. He also brought artistry to his work, creating a unique observatory and even a novel way to bind his manuscripts. His astronomical contributions include charting accurate positions of more than 777 stars and creating a model of the solar system.

In the year 1590, the concluded the Warring States period between feudal lords and established a unified nation. The unification was led by general Hideyoshi who wrestled power from the ruling shogun.

In the year 1572, the Spanish completed their conquest of the Inca empire. Even though the Incas were ravaged by European diseases and civil war, the conquest took 40 years to complete, much longer than the conquest of the Aztecs.

In 1558, Queen Elizabeth II took the throne of England. While she stated that she expected every Englishman to join the Anglican church, though she was famous for not persecuting Catholics. Elizabeth was famous for starting the Age of Exploration in English, including sponsoring Magellan who was the first man to circumnavigate the globe.

Finding out that we had such a thorough understanding of stars through Brahe’s work before the unification of one of the great industrialized empires is a mind-boggling fact. It is impressive to think that man was able to learn so much about space before the foundation of nations that we today consider to have such rich histories. Queen Elizabeth’s reign was considered impressive in the exploration she supported, but the developments in astronomy during Brahe’s lifetime are much older than the development of the New World.

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Historical Astronomers in Context: Johannes Kepler

Posted on February 9, 2022 by isaiandrade01
Sketch of astronomer Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler

Born: December 27, 1571

Died: November 15, 1630

Important Contributions:

Johannes Kepler and his discoveries were integral to understanding planetary motion in our solar system. Other than his three laws, Kepler was actually the first person to publish work defending Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the solar system. Copernicus did propose a heliocentric theory through his work; however, he used the older geocentric model to explain some of the varying speeds of planetary motion in orbits. Through his work Mysterium, Kepler was able to fully support Copernicus’ heliocentric theory without support from a geocentric model. In addition to his published work, are Kepler’s 3 Laws of planetary motion. His first law explained how planets must orbit around the sun in elliptical orbits where the Sun is at one of the foci of the ellipse, the Law of Orbits. His second law relates to the first as it explains planetary motion and the varying speeds throughout the orbit. Kepler discovered that the closer the planets were to the Sun in orbit, the faster they would travel. Graphically, this would be shown as the area swept out throughout any two points in a planet’s orbit and the Sun would be equal if the time interval was kept constant. This became known as the Law of Equal Areas. Lastly, Kepler’s third law explained that the amount of time it takes a planet to orbit around the sun (period, P) is proportional to the semi-major axis of the planet’s orbit (A). In other words, P^2 is proportional to A^3. As shown it’s clear Kepler made vital advancements in human knowledge of astronomy that would help future astronomers develop their own theories.

Historical Event #1:

Depiction of the Mayflower sailing across the Atlantic

While Kepler was alive, in 1620, the Mayflower had arrived in North America bringing over the group that would become known as the Pilgrims, who fled persecution. They ultimately landed in Cape Cod and established the second-ever colony known as the Plymouth colony.

Historical Event #2:

King James of Great Britain

In addition to the Pilgrims, earlier in 1603, the crowns of both England and Scotland united for the first-ever time. With no child from Queen Elizabeth I, England decided to take King James VI from Scotland and make him the first-ever King of Great Britain ruling until his death in 1625.

Historical Figure:

An artist’s rendition of Tokugawa Ieyasu

An important historical figure who also lived while Kepler was alive was Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616). Ieyasu essentially established the Tokugawa Shogunate which became the final period of traditional Japan. He ruled under a shogunate, which is a military dictatorship and sought to vastly expand the Japanese economy.

Reflection:

I think this activity as a whole put in perspective how close in time so many advancements in astronomy and the world were made. For example, when the name Copernicus came to mind, I expected something much farther in the past than only about 100 years until Kepler and Galilei made their discoveries. Something else I found extremely fascinating was learning about the other historical events that occurred around the same time. Although we only wrote about two, my research brought me to so many more events such as the fall of the Ming Dynasty or Europe’s 30-year war. Even the historical people prompt shocked me because I didn’t expect Shakespeare to also be alive at the same time as Kepler and Galilei. It was overall an eye-opening experience to learn about these people and events.

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Historical Astronomers in Context

Posted on February 8, 2022 by camsto42

Johannes Kepler

Jamestown being founded in 1607, was one of the first cities in America

The Turkish fleet attacked Cyprus in the War on Venice

This all showed what was most important in the 16th and 17th century, and how astronomy factored into this.

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Historical Astronomers in Context (Galileo Galilei)

Posted on February 8, 2022 by Johann West
Galileo

Galileo Galilei

  • Born February 15, 1564 
  • Died January 8, 1642 

2. Galileo Galilei has been called the father of observational astronomy, modern physics, the scientific method, and modern science itself. He was influential in the field of astronomy due to his contributions which included telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, observation of satellites around Jupiter, observation of Saturn’s rings, and analysis of lunar craters and sunspots. This is all in addition to his inventions including the thermoscope and a variety of compasses. Controversially he was a proponent of heliocentrism. 

3. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) 

  • The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) was one of the longest and deadliest wars in history between Catholic and Protestant forces across Europe. 8 million casualties were the result of combat as well as famine and disease that resulted from the war. The conclusion of the war set one of the earliest foundations for the separation of religion and state. 
  • The Lost Colony of Roanoke Island (1587-1590). Some English colonists founded and then disappeared from their colony, leaving only the word “Croatoan” behind carved into a gatepost. It is still not completely known exactly what happened to the colonists. 
  1. William Shakespeare lived from 1564 to 1616. Shakespeare is considered “the seminal writer of the English language.” He is by far the best known playwright and poet throughout history. His works are continuously being taught in schools, and derived into new mediums. 

4. Learning the environment surrounding these famous astronomers, specifically Galileo Galilei, shows me the context in which decisions and scientific opinions were presented. For example, the Catholic Church had issue with Galileo’s opinion on heliocentrism, and considering that the Catholic Church became involved in a major deadly conflict towards the later end of Galileo’s career, it shows the bravery and certainty that Galileo possessed when presenting his thesis about heliocentrism. I am not sure if Galileo was a recreational man, but if he was, it is interesting to imagine him attending one of Shakespeare’s plays. 

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homework #2

Posted on February 8, 2022 by graceward02

Historical Astronomers in Context by Grace

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Homework #2

Posted on February 8, 2022 by Emily Bertram
  1. A.) Nicholas Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 and died May 24, 1543. Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 and died January 8, 1642. Johannes Kepler was born on December 27, 1571 and died November 15, 1630. Isaac Newton has two recorded birthdates, one December 25, 1642 and the other being January 4, 1643. Newton died on March 31, 1727. Tycho Brahe was born on December 14, 1546 and died October 24, 1601. 

B.) Galileo Galiei and Johannes Kepler were living during the same time. 

  1. Tycho Brahe was important to astronomy because he first used the telescope to make observations about the stars and planets. These astronomical observations were accurate and he was able to determine that the planets orbit the sun elliptically.
  2. A.) From 1558 to 1603 the Elizabethan era (which was when Queen Elizabeth the first was reigning) is considered the height of the English Renaissance. Secondly, from 1566 to 1648, the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands occured. The Dutch won the war and achieved their goal of stopping the Spanish invasion into their territory. 

B.) William Shakespear lived during the same time period. He was born in April of 1564 and died on April 23, 1616. He was an American playwright and extremely influential during his time and after it. He was famous for writing Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet along with many more plays.

  1. I personally look back on history during a time like this and try to clump all of these people together in the same time period. However, many of these influential people lived during very different times and experienced different ways of life. On the other hand, I also find it interesting to think that William Shakespeare lived during the same time as a famous astronomer because I have always believed that Shakespeare was alive a long time ago. I have also had the impression that famous astronomers were alive more recently. 

Work Cited

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/.  

Wikimedia Foundation. (2022, February 8). William Shakespeare. Wikipedia. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare.  

16th Century. 16th century. (n.d.). Retrieved February 8, 2022, from https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/1/16th_century.htm.  

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