The golden record is a collection of songs, messages, and symbols placed on a golden disk that was sent out on the voyager spacecrafts. The record also has imprinted on it a small encoded map about where Earth is or how far away it is, as well as messages telling whatever species that obtains this record on how to play it.
However, it should be noted that these sounds and records come from the 1977, an older version of America. Since then, our technology and capabilities as a species has increased exponentially. This record has no information on how the world is today, with the increasing use of the internet, the updates to human society, and how much more capable we are at sending messages across space. If an alien race found our golden disk, they might only assume that we humans are still at that level of technology and we cannot produce anything more advanced.
It would be a funny concept, if an alien civilization came to Earth expecting the same world as the 1970s only to be introduced to a Gen Z world with TikTok and iPhones. Furthermore, if we ever receive first contact, we should treat it as a lowball of how advanced the alien civilization is. Maybe for future probes going deep into space, more updated disks will be sent showing how far we have come.
Megatron holding the Golden Record. Don’t ask me how I know this, I just do. Source from ScreenRant.
Drake Equation, as well as all of the factors that go into it. Credit goes to Business Insider.
The Drake Equation is an equation used to determine the odds of communicating with another alien civilization. Created by Frank Drake in the 1961, it was a product of all of the odds of life forming, planets having suitable habitats, and how successful the life was on the planet.
The first value was R, or how many sun like stars are in the Milky Way Galaxy that can have. The next following values are the odds of how many of these stars have planetary systems (fp) and how many of these planets are in the habitable zone of the star (ne). Fp is always high because evidence shows that the majority of stars develop planets from their accretion disks. Ne, however, has a higher range due to the situations of a terrestrial planet being in the habitable zone or a large gas giant with multiple terrestrial moons in the habitable zone. These two values could be estimated by looking at other systems and understanding planetary formation.
The other variables are much harder to accurately range. The odds of life developing, intelligent life developing, and such life developing communication technology are highly speculative. There is only one sample that we can use as reference for this one; Earth. Out of all planets, bodies, and systems that we have observed, Earth is the only planet that us humans have discovered life on.
Although this could be due to pessimistic bias, but the odds of life forming is fairly small, since scientists have failed to create life even under ideal circumstances. The results may improve through time, but it appears to be a random chance occurrence rather than an eventuality. For such life to become intelligent, there needs to be enough competition in the ecosystem to force evolution to evolve sentience. This took Earth 3.7 billion years, and the odds of life randomly going extinct also make this value smaller. Finally, there is the odds of such life developing communication. There is no inherit need for a species to look to the stars apart from curiosity and looking for more resources, and the odds the alien species thinks like us is very slim.
The final variable is L. This is how long a civilization can exist without self imploding or losing to natural causes. This is probably the lowest. A competitive alien species would develop weapons in order to survive and adapt. Us humans have always been inventing new weapons to give us a new edge against ourselves. We developed nuclear bombs at around the same time as we sent out the first radar signals. We used said nuclear bombs before we ever set a man on the moon, and we have had multiple wars since. It is my unfortunate conclusion that an advanced alien race would also face these issues and go extinct quickly.
Due to all of these low percentages, the odds of communicating with life is slim to none, and this is for the whole Milky Way, not just some nearby star system. As pessimistic as this seems, it also is quite special, since it shows despite these low odds, we as humans are somehow here. We managed to beat the odds, and our mere existence is something of a miracle.
Figure 1. Skyhook concept where a space shuttle is attached to a satellite in orbit (via tether) and is hurled away from Earth.
One of the biggest issues with rocket launches today is the inefficiency of converting fuel into thrust. Because of this, rocket payloads have to be small compared to the amount of space required for fuel. For instance, the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket carries a total weight of fuel of ~411 tonnes (the equivalent weight of 2.5 average-sized American homes). Clearly, we must look at alternative methods of guiding a rocket into space and away from Earth while allowing for more space for a payload.
Enter the concept of a “skyhook”. The idea behind a skyhook is to have a satellite with two attached tethers: one long tether with a hook that can attach to an incoming spacecraft and another short hook with a counterweight. As shown in Figure 2, if one can get the satellite’s orbital velocity to synchronize with the tether rotation rate, then the tether’s tip will move as a cycloid curve. There are two key characteristics of a cycloid curve that will help us understand the idea behind a skyhook. First, when the tether reaches its lowest point, it is essentially stationary. Here, an incoming spacecraft can safely attach to the skyhook. Second, at the tether’s highest point, the velocities of the satellite and tether are working in the same direction. This means that this point serves as the location at which the skyhook is traveling at its fastest speed. Thus, releasing the spacecraft here would allow it to slingshot away from Earth at high speeds.
Figure 2. An example of a cycloid curve for a rotational system.
So, what would be a concern of utilizing such a system? Skyhooks are also referred to as “Momentum Exchange Tethers”. This is because the rotational momentum from the satellite is transferred into the attached spacecraft as the spacecraft is accelerated. Over time, if rotational momentum is not added back into the satellite-tether system, the system would eventually stop spinning. To prevent this, the skyhook would either have to have on-board thrusters that could burn for a specific amount of time (allowing the system to regain rotational momentum), or the skyhook would have to be capable of slowing incoming spacecraft down for a descent to Earth. The latter option means that the momentum from the fast-traveling spacecraft would be added to the satellite-tether system.
If we are able to successfully design, construct, and deploy these skyhook systems, a great amount of money and space on rockets can be conserved as the required amount of fuel to complete a space mission would decrease. This would also open the doors to incorporating skyhooks across the Solar System (i.e., around the Moon, around Mars, etc.). Accomplishing such a feat would allow for a more constant stream of rocket launches to occur.
Just five days ago, researchers identified the last two nucleotide bases in asteroid samples that had previously been unrecognized. Professor and researcher Yasuhiro Oba at Hokkaido University in Japan, alongside a team of scientists, successfully identified the missing cytosine and thymine nucleases. Unlike the other bases, Cyt. and Thy. have very delicate structures, making them more difficult to distinguish in meteorite samples. This discovery confirms the presence of all five nucleotides on asteroids, which are the bases of DNA and RNA—the bases of life. Organizations and science magazines that have reported on Oba’s findings are suggesting that this discovery revealed the ‘blueprint’ of life.
Of course, there are many more questions remaining than there are answers to satisfy them. One of the main uncertainties is how exactly the nucleotides were transferred from their source asteroids to Earth. There are two hypotheses to explain this transference. One suggests that meteorites directly introduce them to Earth’s surface through impacts with the planet. The other delivery is attributed to meteoric smoke, which is a vaporized form of solid matter that then condenses at low altitudes in gaseous atmospheres; this particle smoke occurs when the meteorite enters and burns in the atmosphere. This theory posits that the nucleotides are carried via this meteoric smoke, which then is deposited on Earth’s surface as the particles settle. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and may even occur as two phases of a meteorite’s contact with Earth. Right now, the specifics of how these nucleotides are transferred from asteroids to Earth are not the most important part of this discovery. Rather, it is the newfound confirmation that the building blocks of organic life can and do form in space.
In 1960, Ronald Bracewell made public his idea of a “Bracewell probe” that was capable of both identifying and exchanging information with intelligent alien civilizations. These probes would be sent toward different star systems and place themselves within a near-circular orbit in a star’s habitable zone. Using solar energy from the star, the probe would power its electronics and continuously scan for narrow-band radio transmissions within the star system. Should any transmission be identified, the Bracewell probe will locate the source of the signal and send the original signal back in hopes of gaining attention and establishing further discussion between the probe and civilization.
There are several advantages of having a probe with the described characteristics. First, placing a probe direction in a star system allows for a more powerful signal to be transmitted as opposed to transmitting from Earth (being light-years away). This means that the signal would be much more noticeable for advanced civilizations that are capable of detecting these signals. Another advantage is that this probe could remain in orbit around the star of interest for a long period of time. If initial broadcasts from the probe generated no response, new messages across a variety of frequencies could be emitted to increase the odds of contacting these civilizations. Finally, placing a probe directly in a star system allows for near real-time communication. This eliminates the issue of sending and receiving messages that are several years old.
Perhaps the Bracewell probe is our answer for locating other advanced civilizations; however, two main obstacles exist with current technology. One issue is that we currently do not have the propulsion methods for getting these probes to a location in a reasonable amount of time. There have been advancements with nuclear fusion propulsion units, but these units have not been fully developed. With current propulsion methods, fuel would be exhausted long before we would attain speeds that would get us to these star systems in a timely manner. The second problem is that the probe requires a high degree of artificial intelligence. Even though real-time conversations can occur between the probe and an advanced civilization, it will take a while for this information to be relayed back to Earth. Therefore, the probe must be capable of carrying a conversation without having human input. When these problems are addressed, finding extraterrestrial life can become a reality.
The pH scale is used to gauge the acidity and ranges from 0-14, with lower values being more acidic and higher values being more alkali. 7 is the neutral level between the two. Substances like battery or stomach acids have pHs around 0 or 1; water and blood are around 7, with drain cleaner or bleach being the most alkali at a pH of 14. Everything on Earth with a measurable pH falls somewhere on this scale. However, these limits do not apply in our solar system. The clouds that comprise Venus’ atmosphere are made mostly of sulfuric acid, ranging from concentrations of 75-96% in different areas and elevations. Their pH falls below the Earth scale to an incredible -1.2. To date, this is the most acidic substance ever discovered, and reflects the extremity of extraterrestrial conditions.
Acidophiles on Earth favor conditions with pH values under 5, making oceanic volcanic vents and sulfur springs suitable homes for these microorganisms. However, it seems they grow most successfully when the pH is approximately 3. This raises the question—to what extremes could life survive? Is an environment of -1.2 pH too acidic even for acidophiles? Could even this harsh planet support some kind of life? For the moment, these questions remain unanswered. Yet the presence of acidophiles on Earth raises it as a very real possibility.
On a final note, achieving a calculatednegative pH level is actually quite simple; it occurs when the hydrogen ion concentration of the substance reaches a molarity greater than 1. However, testing whether the substance actually has a negative pH is incredibly difficult. There is no litmus paper or method to confirm that the calculation matches the true pH. This being said, the true acidity of Venus’ clouds is not known with certainty, but is simply a calculated value. It is possible that solar pH levels are much higher or lower than currently-known values.
Sulfuric acid clouds on Venus. JAXA/ISAS/AKATSUKI PROJECT TEAM.
Over the course of the semester, I have significantly improved my understanding of space, the stars within, and the 8 planets of our solar system. It was particularly interesting to me discussing the formation of the solar system, as I had no idea there were so many unique events that shaped our solar system to be how it is today. (For example, the Moon being made out of Earth’s crust that was blown away.)
When I look at a picture of space, or look up into the sky, I now wonder what solar systems the stars above hold, when we will reach them, and if they’ll respond to the radio communications humans have sent out. Additionally, I wonder if the gold plaque’s sent out into space will ever be recovered, by either humans or aliens.
Looking into the future, I am excited for what the future holds. Specifically, future probes to the solar system. I distinctly recall looking at the Mission Juno ‘time until destination’ multiple times while I was in high school, and reading about the mission in our textbook was extraordinary. For the future, I hope that we are able to send out many, many probes that bring back information that leads to more answers about the universe.
Are we alone? This sentence, likely thought by many humans around the world and throughout history in hundreds of languages, brings forth a profound question. Also known as the Fermi Paradox, the search for intelligent extraterrestrial life has captured many minds. If life is so plentiful here on Earth, and there are so many habitable planets in the universe, where are all the aliens? The Fermi Paradox, known colloquially as “Where are all the aliens?” has many implications of its meaning, of which, a few I discuss below:
Self-destruction
Known as a “Great Filter”, an unrealized blockage towards space expansion may be the inability to leave our own planet. In our current times, much is driven by scarcity: food, water, and shelter to begin, and anything else a human can “need” next. This scarcity is likely to, and certainly has in the past, brought about conflict – destruction that has only gotten more advanced. A reason that we do not see alien spaceships flying around our solar system may be due to the fact that there are no aliens capable, and this is because they all destroyed themselves in this scarcity driven conflict. For humans to be able to completely solve the problem of scarcity by mining asteroids, or mining other planets, we must first be able to live with and thrive in our current means.
Type 3+ civilizations
To make things even more ominous, another implication of the Fermi Paradox may be a civilization that is type 3 or above. This type of civilization would be able to travel across its galaxy within its species lifetime, and has complete control of its galactic sphere. A civilization this advanced may simply wait until an alien species is on the brink of becoming a “type 3 civilization”, and then exterminating the species. This would ensure that no other alien species is able to cause any harm to the extremely advanced civilization.
Another way of looking at this would be the example of a rainforest. Imagine a Toucan living in the rainforest. Humans regularly harvest wood from rainforests, leaving the Toucans with nothing. To a Toucan, a tree is likely all it needs in life: it may find food if the free has fruit, a tree can certainly support a Toucan’s family, and a tree was where it was born, so it may harbor sentimental value. Like humans coming into the rainforest, aliens could come and harvest the water, rare earth metals, or other resource present on Earth key to human survival. Similarly to the Toucan, we would be left without this resource, and likely perish, and similar to the Toucan, we would not be able to do anything about it.
The Limits of Technology
If the previous two implications aren’t the ones holding aliens back, it may be the limits of technology. Until we reach the limits, we will never know where they are, but there are some large issues with intersteller travel:
Distance
Traveling hundreds of thousands of lightyears may be possible for light, but it is traveling at the speed of light. Traversing these incredible distances is impossible for any rockets currently developed.
Length of Life
Aliens, like humans, may have a lifespan that is far too short for space voyages. For this reason, space travel may be impossible, as our bodies begin to break down far sooner than we reach our destination.
A magnetoplasmadynamic thruster design. These rockets are some of the fastest things humans have developed, being able to travel at speeds of over 100 km/s.
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The barophiles we have found are tiny organisms, usually bacteria, living in areas with intense pressure. They are found on ocean floors where pressure can reach about 400 atm. For reference, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm. Some barophiles known as obligate barophiles cannot survive in low pressures. The barophile Halomonas salaria cannot survive in pressures less than 1000 atm. Though barophiles can withstand and thrive in immense pressure, they have their evolutionary shortcomings. For example, UV rays can kill them because they are unable to repair their DNA.
Studying extremophiles made me think about how each organism has different specialties. Barophiles can live at the sea floor but cannot withstand ultraviolet radiation at all. Cheetahs are extremely fast but cannot program. Humans are communicative and advanced but would be essentially helpless in the wild without their innovation and intelligence- they’re not fast and they don’t have sharp teeth! Not every species is strong in the same areas yet our differences help us survive in our unique environments and sometimes even coexist.
On April 24, 2022, the Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 32nd birthday. To commemorate the celebration of the most famed telescope man has ever seen, the team behind the telescope released an image of Hickson Compact Group 40, the shot containing 5 whole galaxies, taken by Hubble late last year. Nearly all of the galaxies have sources of radio waves at their cores, potential evidence that a huge black hole resides at each galaxy’s center. Nasa has said that the galaxies are gravitational impacting one another, with the galaxies so clustered together that they could fit within a span of space only twice as far across as our own Galaxy, the Milky Way. On Hubble’s special day, the scientists at NASA were quick to point out that this beautiful shot was only one of 1.5 million snapshots taken by the telescope, each of which is stored at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland. It is safe to say that Hubble, for 32 years now, has been a national and public treasure.
