Atmospheres and the Greenhouse Effect – Cameron Klein

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Cameron Klein
NASA Climate Kids

When I used to think of planets, the planets’ atmospheres were typically the last things that would cross my mind. However, a planet’s atmosphere is a defining feature of it’s qualities. To start off, what even is an atmosphere? An atmosphere is a layer of gas that surrounds a planet (or planetary body) that is held in place by the body’s mass/gravity. According to The Cosmic Perspective by Jeffrey O. Bennett, Megan O. Donahue, Nicholas Schneider, and Mark Voit, general features of an atmosphere include the elements involved in its composition, its surface pressure, average surface temperature, winds and weather patterns, and clouds and hazes. Here on Earth, the majority of our atmosphere is composed of Nitrogen, however, this is far from the case for any other terrestrial planet in our solar system. Mercury and our Moon’s atmosphere are primarily made of helium and sodium. Venus and Mars’ atmospheres are primarily carbon dioxide.

Our terrestrial world’s have very different atmospheres. The Moon and Mercury have such little atmospheres that they have no weather and can even be considered airless! On the other hand, Venus has such a thick atmosphere that gives it surface conditions that are excruciatingly hot and not even robots can survive on it. Mars has a carbon dioxide atmosphere as well, but good luck living there because the air is too thin for you to be there for more than a few minutes.

Now, how did Venus become so hot? Why can we live on Earth in a comfortable climate for our bodies? This can be attributed to the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is when heat is trapped into a planet’s surface due to specific gases known as greenhouse gases. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold for us to exist! When light is reflected back into space, some light gets absorbed in a planet’s surface. However, this light, too, has to return to space, but now, this light is infrared light. The greenhouse gases temporarily trap this light and prolong it return to space by molecules reemitting it as another photons that gets absorbed by another molecule, and this cycle continues — heating the planet.

Curious to learn more about the greenhouse effect? Check out this cool video by NASA!

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Blog on Chapters 1-2

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Alyssa Ballard

I always thought that the seasons were caused only because of where Earth is or isn’t closest to the sun. But other things go into it than just distance, since it is only a small part of the reason. The main reason for the seasons is because of Earth’s axis tilt. One of the common misconceptions in the book in the section about the seasons was that the Earth’s distance is what makes the seasons, but it’s really the axis tilt. We also have solstice and equinox to represent the start of each season. To keep those on track to be around the same time each year, the modern calendar has a leap year every 4 years.

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The Universe’s Greatest Mystery That Threatens the Fabric of Physics

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Landon Peaden

Wikipedia

The foundational aspect of science is that a scientific theory that explains something about the natural world must be repeatedly tested and confirmed. If it cannot apply to every situation that meets the requisite parameters, then it is not a theory. Some information or calibration is missing, and the theory will be refined.

Dark matter threatens many physics concepts due to abnormal behavior against every other type of matter – even other forms that aren’t visible to the naked eye or computational systems. It does not interact with light or electromagnetic fields. Its existence can only be implied by assuming that the general relativity is true as it currently stands, because for the observations being recorded among the non-dark matter bodies to hold true, there must be another, greater mass that we cannot quantify.

This isn’t black holes that are impossible to see with any form of instrumentation – putting aside the fact that we have seen what a black hole looks like. The empty, dark space around this dark matter isn’t roughly circular or elliptical as a black hole’s is. It cannot be “confirmed” by any method based on the observation of the universe and its surroundings. It only “exists” because general relativity is, otherwise, always right, so this dark matter must exist, even if we can’t truly prove it does.

So either there is something out there that makes up 85% of all matter in the universe that violates the most fundamental astrophysics concepts, or it is such an extreme case that it seems to violate said concepts – and if dark matter is 85%, can it really be called an “extreme” case when it’s the norm?

Either way, 85% of the universe is filled with this eldritch horror of something impossibly large and heavy (the gravitational effects of black matter imply extremely large masses given the relationship between mass and gravity) that we cannot see no matter how hard we try, blots out the light of entire galaxies, and blankets all of existence.

And that’s not to say of whatever is inside these “empty” regions.

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Walking on the Giant Planets

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Adriana Santos
Jovian Planets: NASA

In class, we have been learning a lot about the different kinds of planets and what makes them have their unique characteristics. But did you know that if possible to send people to the Giant Planets, you would not be able to walk on them?

One of the characteristics of the Giant Planets is that they are mostly made up of gases, they actually do not have a solid surface. According to NASA, What we are seeing is their deep atmospheres which get tighter as they get closer to the relatively small solid core. So what would it be like to explore these planets? It seems as though humans could never go to them, even if there were safe and feasible conditions to send them there. Astronomy Magazine states that you would still travel through layers. These layers would feel like you are swimming or floating through the different components of the atmosphere until you hit the core.

I found this so fascinating since all of these planets appear solid!

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Life On? Venus

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Adriana Santos
Venus’ atmosphere showing the dark patches from NASA

Venus is known as Earth’s sister planet due to their similar sizes and structures, but Venus is a very different world than what we know on Earth. As NASA notes, if you were to slice both Venus and Earth down the middle, their interiors would be very similar, but their surfaces are much different. One of the reasons for this is Venus’ thick atmosphere that has caused greenhouse gas effects on the surface. Temperatures on Venus can exceed 480 degrees Fahrenheit! Due to the intense volcanic activity on Venus, the outgassing created a dense atmosphere mostly made of carbon dioxide with sulfuric acid clouds. The volcanoes and tectonic forces on Venus have seemed to clear what the surface originally looked like. Kind of like how Earth’s surface changes over time.

But what does this have to do with life on Venus? Surely it is too hot to support any kind of life on the surface. Maybe, we need to look up higher.

Since the surface is too hot, scientists believe it is possible that microorganisms actually live amongst the clouds in the atmosphere. The atmosphere does not experience the greenhouse gas effect that the surface does, allowing for more stable living conditions for these extreme organisms. Additionally, there are traces of water vapor in the atmosphere too! Although there have been numerous probes and orbiters sent to Venus and scientists have a full picture of the atmosphere, there are still inexplicable dark patches. Scientists believe these could be areas of absorption of light, meaning that microorganisms are taking in the Sun’s energy to survive. It is hard to know for sure and these organisms would need to be able to withstand really extreme conditions, but it could help us get to the bottom of those dark patches within the atmosphere.

More studies are going to be done on this in the near future as more probes and orbiters are sent to Venus. What do you think; could there be life in the air of Venus? What else might we find in these next missions? Check out this article from the University of Wisconsin to learn more!

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Intelligent Life Isn’t About Blind Luck. It’s About Probability.

Posted on March 2, 2024 by Landon Peaden

ARS Technia

The thought of other sentient life existing in the universe is one that comes up often. Among the religious crowd, many will argue that Earth’s existence is a perfect result of divine influence, that if just a few things were a bit different, we wouldn’t have evolved as we have done.

Yes, we can’t know if other intelligent life exists due to the limitations of travel and communications through the vastness of space. It is likely that they evolved differently than homosapiens. But the chances of the right planet forming to necessitate this evolution aren’t as impossible as one might think.

Earth is special due to both physics and luck. The gaseous material that makes up cosmic dust clouds will condense into solid or liquid matter once the surrounding temperature is low enough. Earth is in the perfect spot of being cool enough for rock and metal to form the basis of the planet’s core, while also being far enough that some hydrogen compounds like water condensed into it. Combined with random astronomical impacts with other formations of materials, the basis of Earth was formed.

But the physics behind this formation is constant throughout the universe. At the same temperature ranges, metal, rock, hydrogen compounds, and other gases will condense. The specific characteristics will be different depending on the size of the nebula the system formed from and how large the star is, but the principle remains true.

In a way, this takes the pressure off us to live up to the “gift” we have been given – one that has been going to waste in the past few centuries. On a sheer probability level, other intelligent life is out there. Given the physical limitations of the speed of light, we will likely never contact them, or them any others beside us. And that’s okay. The existence of humanity is a wonderful phenomenon all on its own. The patterns may be the same everywhere, but the results are not, and humanity is a one-of-a-kind result.

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Life on Europa??

Posted on March 1, 2024 by sabrinaalperin

One of humanity’s greatest wonders is if life could exist outside of Earth. Surely humans are not the only living creatures to exist in the entire universe, but where could other organisms flourish? Scientists have identified three key criteria that make life possible: liquid water, chemistry, and energy. Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons and the sixth-largest in the Solar System, may provide a suitable environment for other life forms!

Photo of Europa take by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft

One of the largest revelations about Europa is that it likely contains a salty ocean buried beneath its icy crust. In fact, scientists hypothesize that this ocean contains twice as much water as all of the oceans on Earth combined! Further, the moon undergoes tidal flexing due to the unequal effects of gravitational attraction between it and Jupiter. As the moon is repeatedly squeezed in and out, heat is generated. This brings us to the next important part of Europa’s ocean – it is likely liquid! The heat generated from the tidal flexing allows the ocean water to stay liquid, even beneath the icy crust.

To maintain life, certain elements must be present in the environment. These elements include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and phosphorus. Scientists believe that many of these elements may be located within Europa’s icy shell and inner core. Additionally, while Europa’s atmosphere is this, it is primarily composed of oxygen.

Finally, Europa receives a steady source of energy from its parent planet, Jupiter. Unlike Earth, which receives energy from sunlight, Europa is constantly hit by radiation from Jupiter, fueling it with energy. This energy has the potential to be harnessed by microbial organisms living beneath the crust in the form of chemical energy. Despite the intense radiation making Europa’s crust inhabitable, life beneath the crust could thrive!

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The Birth of The Solar System

Posted on February 29, 2024 by sabrinaalperin

Have you ever been curious as to where the Solar System got its start? Determining the birth of the Solar System is one of the trickiest tasks astronomers have looked at. Afterall, the formation of the solar system must determine why comets and asteroids reside where they do, predict why we have terrestrial and jovian planets, explain planetary motion, and make allowances for any exceptions.

The Solar System

As a result, many hypotheses have arose over the years. For instance, the encounter hypothesis proclaimed that planets formed out of clumps of debris that had been pulled off of the the Sun during a near encounter between it and another star.

Today, however, the nebular theory is viewed as the most accurate prediction of the formation of the Solar System. As the textbook mentions, this theory explains that the Solar System was born from an interstellar cloud of gas that collapsed under its own gravity after being triggered by a cataclysmic event. This cataclysmic event is hypothesized to be a supernovae that produced a massive shock wave.

It is crazy to wonder (at least for me) where we would be if such event did not happen. Would this solar nebula have ever collapsed? Would the Solar System as we know it have ever been born? Would we be here right now?

As the nebula collapsed, it began to heat up and rotate extremely fast, thus accounting for the motion of the planets. As gas particles began to collide in this hot, whirling ball of gas, it became flatter and more circular, leaving us with the Solar System we know and love today!

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Solar Flares and their Effect on Earth

Posted on February 29, 2024 by katie shapiro

~”All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them”~ Galileo Galilei

Space weather and solar flares: Pitris via Getty Images

In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered sunspots on the sun in our solar system, showing that space was imperfect. However, little was known about these sun spots until the late 19th century. Astronomical researchers discovered that the sunspots were because of a certain phenomenon called space weather that occurs on the sun’s outer atmosphere, called the Corona. Solar flares, caused by space weather, emit charged particles and radiation throughout space. Solar winds can spread this energy throughout the solar system, including towards our Earth. One would expect that this solar energy would cause substantial damage to the Earth, however, our planet’s magnetosphere prevents highly charged particles and radiation from significantly effecting life on Earth. In fact, radiation that comes from the sun actually contribute to the beauty of our planet by producing Auroras, which are the light shows that are primarily seen by the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These occur because of the association between the radiation from the sun and Earth’s atmosphere. Although these auroras are exquisite, solar storms can also cause radio blackouts. What happens is that the X-Rays that originate in the sun’s outer surface and spreads to Earth’s atmosphere via solar wind, will ultimately scatter radio waves. This disruption to the ionosphere leads to blackouts throughout the world.

It is very interesting to think about how durable our planet Earth actually is. The sun is an extremely massive object, reaching significantly high temperatures. Although this is true, the strong effects of the sun, especially the solar storms, have a relatively small impact on the Earth. This just goes to show how incredible our planet is, and how it can withstand harsh conditions, such as solar flares.

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The Cataclysmic Creation of Earth’s Moon

Posted on February 29, 2024 by katie shapiro

~”We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard” ~ John F. Kennedy

Image of a massive object crashing into Earth: All About Space Magazine

Earth’s moon is a vital factor for life on our planet, and it plays a major role for tides and tilt. However, the origin of our moon has been under debate for some time amongst our greatest astronomical researchers. Moreover, one convincing theory that has arisen in our past century, is the idea that a massive object, similar in shape to Mars, crashed into Earth. This cataclysmic impact resulted in vaporized rock and metal that led to the creation of the circular moon via gravity. This large object has been called “Theia”, and there has been substantial evidence that has given truth to this ongoing theory.

When astronauts go to the moon, they collect rock samples to be researched when they get back to Earth. During one mission to the moon, researchers determined, via the rock samples, that the moon has a similar chemical composition to the moon. This was seen by analyzing isotopes of oxygen, and researchers determined that the oxygen makeup was very similar between Earth and its moon. There is also more evidence that supports this theory. Today, we understand that the moon has a rock composition and is cool on the inside. However, research has showed that at the beginning of its formation, it was actually molten due to the strength of the original impact between Earth and “Theia”. This was seen by a rock called anorthosite, which is a type of igneous rock. The presence of this important rock confirms the idea of an original molten moon. These pieces of evidence helps to support the theory that there was an original, cataclysmic collision within space.

It is very interesting to think about what would have happened if “Theia” never crashed into Earth. As for the lack of the moon, there would be very few tides which would have a strong impact on life within the oceans. Additionally, it would also have a major impact on Earth. The original collision impacted the size of Earth and increased the size of our planet. However, if there was no collision, then the Earth would have been substantially smaller and there would have been a lack of plate tectonics and a weaker magnetic field. All in all, life on Earth would have been significantly different. It is so fascinating to think about the fact that if astronauts never went to the moon, then we would have never had this theory. I hope that in the future, as technology advances, that we will be able to send astronauts to other Worlds within our solar system to learn more about the incredible parts of space!

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