Where is Everybody?

Posted on April 28, 2023 by dromalley

The Fermi paradox is a very simple question whose answer could have massive consequences for the future of humanity: where is everybody? With equations like the Drake equation predicting a huge number of extraterrestrial civilizations, it seems odd that we have detected no signs of life outside of Earth. In this blog post, I will cover several possible solutions to the Fermi paradox, and their implications for our future.

The Great Filter

One possible solution to the Fermi paradox is the idea of a “Great Filter” which stands in the way of cosmic solutions. This filter is some “checkpoint” in the development of civilization through which most are unable to pass. This filter could be biological, environmental, or societal, and the specifics matter a great deal. If the filter were the evolution of multi-cellular life, for example, then humanity has already passed through the filter, and the reason we see no extraterrestrial life is because they have not. If, on the other hand, the great filter lies ahead of us, perhaps in the form of climate disaster or the ever-present threat of nuclear war, then humanity faces immense existential threats ahead, and the reason we see no aliens is because they have already failed the test.

A timeline of life in the universe from the ESA

Another possible solution, and probably the most simple, is that humanity happens to be one of the first intelligent species to emerge, at least in our area of the galaxy, and everybody else hasn’t caught up yet. While this is certainly a safer possibility than the great filter, and guarantees no “evil space invaders” come for us, it also means that, at least for the time being, humans are alone in the universe. While this makes for a somewhat desolate universe, it does account for the Fermi paradox without a hypothetical filter, and is certainly a better shot for humanity.

A chart depicting the game theory of the dark forest

The “dark forest” theory is perhaps the most disturbing solution to the Fermi paradox, painting a very grim picture of galactic civilization. In the dark forest theory, advanced technological civilizations are common and more or less evenly distributed. However, due to the huge distances involved, immense cultural and biological differences which hamper or even preclude communication, and inherently finite resources of the galaxy, civilizations do not reveal themselves to the galaxy. If two civilizations encounter each other under this theory, both will be faced with a choice between doing nothing, attacking, or befriending them. However, game theory reveals that for any civilization, the best choice will always be to attack. This means that the only way for a civilization to survive this “dark forest” is to hide from all others, resulting in what we see as the Fermi paradox. This is a very disturbing theory, as it not only implies immense danger to humanity, but also that countless civilizations have been violently destroyed in the history of the universe.

These are only a few of the many possible solutions to the Fermi paradox which have been put forth over the years. It should be no surprise that a question as important as “where is everybody?” has sparked intense debate among scientists and the public alike. Hopefully this blog post has opened your mind to this question, and you’ll find yourself considering it as well.

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Extremophiles: Life Finds a Way in the Most Extreme Places!

Posted on April 28, 2023 by theyounesadventure

Extremophiles are organisms that can survive in extreme environments where other life forms cannot. These harsh environments can have high or low temperatures, extreme pressures, high levels of radiation, and/or extreme acidity or alkalinity. Despite the inhospitable conditions, extremophiles have developed unique adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive. Did you know that three fascinating groups of extremophiles can survive in extreme temperatures?

First, thermophiles are organisms that thrive in temperatures over 80°C and can be found in hot springs, hydrothermal vents, and geothermal locations. These unique creatures have enzymes and proteins that can withstand high temperatures, allowing them to perform metabolic processes that other organisms cannot. Scientists are studying these organisms to learn about how proteins maintain stability at high temperatures, which has potential applications in biotechnology, such as the production of biofuels and other industrial procedures.

Microscopic image of Thermophiles of Hot Springs National Park

On the other hand, psychrophiles are a type of extremophiles that can survive in extremely cold environments. They can be found in places like polar ice caps, glaciers, and permafrost. What’s fascinating is that these organisms have the ability to develop antifreeze proteins that prevent their cells from freezing, enabling them to operate even at very low temperatures. By studying psychrophiles, scientists have gained valuable insights into the boundaries of life on Earth and how proteins maintain stability in different environments.

Third, halophiles are extremophiles that have the ability to withstand high salt concentrations, which are commonly found in salt flats, salt lakes, and the Dead Sea. They have adapted to their environments by developing specialized ion pumps in their cell membranes that help maintain the proper balance of ions inside and outside the cell. Studying halophiles has provided valuable knowledge regarding how organisms can adapt to extreme salinity, and has offered potential applications in biotechnology such as the production of salt-tolerant enzymes.

Dunaliella salina in sea salt, an example of a halophile

Not only are extremophiles intriguing from a scientific standpoint, but they also have practical uses in biotechnology, medicine, and astrobiology. Through studying these organisms, experts can learn how life can adjust to extreme conditions, which could lead to the development of new drugs, industrial processes, and potential discoveries in the search for alien life.

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Extremophiles: life finds a way

Posted on April 28, 2023 by 7smessier45

I remember first learning about extremophiles back in the sixth grade. Back then, I was fascinated by life’s ability to find a way to survive even in the ‘worst’ conditions. Now that I’m older, I am no less fascinated by these amazing organisms, their ability to thrive, and their connection to astronomy. (I only recently learned about their relationship to astronomy and the search for alien life! But it’s still incredibly cool!)

So, what are Extremophiles? 

Simply put, extremophiles are organisms that have adapted to live and thrive under extremely harsh conditions. These organisms showcase the incredible durability and persistence of life. They have been found in hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean, the cores of nuclear reactors, and even Yellowstone’s Grand Prismatic Spring. 

Scientists classify extremophiles based on the conditions they have adapted to suit. Some examples include acidophiles, acidophilic organisms survive best in environments with pHs under one to around 5; barophiles, barophilic organisms thrive under high pressure; and thermophiles, thermophilic organisms are best suited to environments with temperatures in excess of 40-80 degrees Celsius (140-176 degrees Fahrenheit). [Hyperthermophiles thrive in temperatures greater than 80 degrees Celsius/176 degrees Fahrenheit.] 

Many of these extremophiles have adapted to live in environments where more than one extreme condition exists. The tubeworms (and their symbiotic bacteria) living on hydrothermal vents have adapted to an environment with (relatively) high temperatures, high pressure, and high acidity. Likewise, the many bacteria that give the Grand Prismatic Spring its striking colors have also adapted to high temperatures. 

Extremophiles in Yellowstone’s Grand Prismatic Spring, by Steve Jurvetson

Extremophiles and Astronomy

Extremophiles are incredibly important to Astrobiology–the field responsible for studying when, how, and where extrasolar life could exist. By studying the organisms that thrive in the most extreme environments on Earth, scientists hope to glean insights into how to better guide our search for alien life and challenge our conceptions of what constitutes alien life.

I hope you find these organisms just as fascinating as I do, or at the very least, can take some heart in the idea that life finds a way–even in the harshest conditions. (Just ask the friendly tardigrade–an extremophile that lives in mosses and lichens on Earth but can also survive the vacuum of space and live to reproduce!)

Tardigrade (Water Bear), from Flickr

Until next time,

7sMessier45

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Final Thoughts..

Posted on April 27, 2023 by dougkyles422111
The Universe.

Blog 8? That doesn’t sound right. It feels like yesterday I designed my website and wrote my first post. Throughout the course of Astronomy 2110 I have explored the universe in many aspects. What sticks with me most, however, is how exactly we got to our current deep understanding of the universe. 

Would Kepler have expected us to one day be confident in our theories of the origins of the universe, much less have those theories? Would Brahe? Would Archimedes? Would any of the greats preceding us have expected humans to eventually not only leave our world but send probes into the vastness of outer space, skipping past each and every planet within our solar system? 

We learned of the way Astronomy began, with naked-eye observations into the skies by humans bold enough to question if the stars were truly something other than points of light that came with night. Centuries of exploration started with the few concepts we could prove: the Sun seemed to travel across our sky, the bright lights across the sky at night were not the same throughout the year, and the entire world did not experience light and darkness at the same time. 

Throughout the centuries the only consistency was in the speed of our exploration’s development. It grew rapidly at a seemingly exponential pace. The vast majority of our knowledge of other galaxies came from the last 5 decades alone. Today world governments collaborate to create technology that costs millions to develop, all to peer a little closer into the space we occupy in the universe. 

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Call Me Maybe?

Posted on April 27, 2023 by dougkyles422111
Messge Sent in Arebico Broadcast by SETI

Unfortunately, I come to the conclusion at the end of this class that it is extremely unlikely, and mathematically almost impossible, that we will receive any extraterrestrial contact within our lifetime. Reading about SETI makes me happy that humans have thought to reach out and prioritized it in a way (it is a very expensive project). However, I believe the odds that we will actually be able to communicate with one of these civilizations is so extremely low. If we just consider how we communicated 100 years ago, we would not be able to send signals to the other side of the world, much less the galaxy. Now put that time scale in the BILLIONS of years and it becomes clear that an advanced civilization likely would be using methods of contact that are surely unimaginable to us. 
The broadcast by SETI into star cluster M13 is particularly interesting. We sent out what we believed would be a relatively easily deciphered message. However, even after coordinating our most powerful telescope to send this signal, it will take approximately 25,000 years to reach the M13 Cluster. So even if this signal is successful, the odds we will be able to get a message back in any relevant window of time is very low. Very low. My family will have most definitely be a figment of the past, and this saddens me.

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some final thoughts

Posted on April 27, 2023 by Emma Williams
Astronomy Picture of the Day of April 20, 2023, our last day of class 😦

When I started this class, I didn’t expect to find so many connections between astronomy and they other subjects I’m interested in! I am majoring in philosophy and political science, subjects that I believed to be totally independent from the physics and history of our universe. Thankfully, I was very wrong!

I still am shocked by how unfathomably large the universe is. From the first time I learned about the Cosmic Calendar (you can read my earlier blog post on that here!), I discovered that the more I learned, the harder it became to wrap my mind around just how big and old everything is. Our place in the universe is so seemingly insignificant; after all, our lifetimes are just a blink of an eye on a small patch of one planet among billions.

But at the same time, this is an inspiring thought– the possibilities are endless! The universe is filled with unexplored horizons! The possibility, though yet unsubstantiated, of extraterrestrial life (you can read my post on the Fermi Paradox here) only adds to the limitless opportunities that we have to figure out our place in this world.

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the fermi paradox

Posted on April 27, 2023 by Emma Williams
comic about the Fermi Paradox from LPU

Sir Arthur C. Clarke, a British science fiction author, said that “two possibilities exist: either we are alone in the universe or we are not. Both are equally terrifying”. And he was exactly right!

The more that we learn about and explore the universe, the more we learn about the possibility of life out there, whatever that might look like. The Fermi Paradox refers to the clash between the high probability that somewhere out there exists high-intelligence extraterrestrial life and that we currently have no evidence for such life.

Various scientists have attempted to calculate the number of civilizations that may be out there; notably, the Drake and Seager Equations have used estimates of the number of sun-like stars, the number of planets orbiting those stars, the share of those planets within habitable zones, the timeline for development of life, and the lifespan of the typical civilization (among other variables) to try and come to some kind of conclusion, but the wide range of values for any given variable makes a conclusive estimate almost impossible.

Maybe we haven’t looked hard enough, or maybe we lack the tools to find life, or maybe the extraterrestrial life that we seek is just really good at hiding. Regardless, our understanding of the universe is expanding every single day– hopefully, someday soon, we can start to get some kind of answer to the paradox!

Calvin and Hobbes Comic
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Fast Radio Bursts

Posted on April 27, 2023 by Rocket Man
Figure: The first detected FRB in 2006. Source: Wikipedia

Fast radio bursts, or FRBs, are a phenomenon in astrophysics that has captivated researchers since their discovery in 2007. These are short-lived but extremely powerful bursts of radio waves that originate from far beyond our own galaxy. The duration of these bursts is typically measured in milliseconds, but during that time, they can emit as much energy as the Sun does in an entire day. Despite being observed for over a decade, the origins of FRBs remain a mystery, and astronomers are still working to understand their nature and the implications they may have for our understanding of the universe. The first FRB was discovered in 2007 by Duncan Lorimer and his team at West Virginia University. It was dubbed the “Lorimer Burst” and was initially believed to be a one-time event. However, subsequent observations showed that FRBs were not isolated incidents and that they occur frequently throughout the universe.

Figure: Possibility of Fast Radio Burst being related to aliens. Source: New Scientist

One theory about the origin of FRBs is that they are produced by highly energetic cosmic events, such as the collision of two neutron stars or the explosion of a supernova. Another possibility is that FRBs could be caused by magnetars, which are highly magnetic neutron stars that produce intense bursts of X-rays and gamma rays. However, these theories do not fully explain the properties of FRBs, such as their extreme brightness and the fact that they seem to come from random locations in the sky. Another possibility is that FRBs could be a result of alien technology, specifically, the use of powerful transmissions by extraterrestrial civilizations. The idea of using radio waves to communicate with other intelligent life forms has been explored by humans since the early days of radio communication. Therefore, the possibility that other civilizations in the universe may be using similar methods to communicate cannot be ruled out entirely.

Regardless of their origins, the study of FRBs has the potential to significantly impact our understanding of the universe. One of the most exciting developments in the field of FRB research has been the discovery of repeating FRBs. These are bursts that occur at regular intervals, indicating that they are not just one-time events. The first repeating FRB was discovered in 2016, and since then, several others have been detected. Repeating FRBs has allowed scientists to study them more closely and has led to new insights into their properties. For example, in 2020, researchers were able to detect a repeating FRB from a source within our own galaxy for the first time. This discovery has provided new clues about the nature of FRBs and suggests that they may be more common than previously believed.

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“Where is everybody?”

Posted on April 27, 2023 by Rocket Man

The Fermi Paradox has puzzled scientists and philosophers for over half a century. It is named after Enrico Fermi, the Italian American physicist who, during a lunchtime conversation in 1950, asked, “Where is everybody?” Fermi was referring to the apparent contradiction between the high probability of the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life and the lack of evidence for it. Despite decades of research and numerous attempts to detect extraterrestrial life, we have yet to find any definitive proof of its existence, and the Fermi Paradox remains one of the most perplexing mysteries of modern science. One possible explanation for the Fermi Paradox is the idea that advanced civilizations may be too far away from us to detect or communicate with, given the vast distances between stars and galaxies. This is known as the “Great Filter” hypothesis. According to this theory, there may be a set of barriers that prevent life from reaching the stage of advanced technological development required for interstellar travel and communication. These barriers could include catastrophic events such as asteroid impacts or supernovae, or more complex factors such as social or environmental constraints. Another hypothesis that has been put forward is that intelligent life may be exceedingly rare in the universe, a concept known as the “Rare Earth” theory. According to this idea, the development of complex life is the result of a series of unlikely events, such as the formation of a stable planetary system, the presence of a large moon to stabilize the planet’s orbit, and the existence of a magnetic field to protect the planet from harmful radiation. These factors may be so rare that they only occur in a few locations in the universe, making the emergence of intelligent life a rare and unlikely event.

Figure: Zoo hypothesis may explain why we can’t see aliens. Source: SETI

Some scientists have suggested that advanced civilizations may be deliberately avoiding contact with us, a concept known as the “Zoo Hypothesis.” This theory proposes that extraterrestrial civilizations are observing us but have made a conscious decision not to interact with us. This could be due to the fear of hostile or dangerous aliens, the belief that interacting with other species could be harmful to their own development, or simply a desire to maintain the natural order of the universe. Alternatively, it is possible that extraterrestrial life could exist in forms that are vastly different from what we consider to be life. The concept of “non-biological intelligence” suggests that intelligent life could emerge from technological or artificial sources, such as advanced robots or artificial intelligence. Such forms of life could be difficult to recognize or detect and may not rely on the same conditions necessary for biological life. Despite the many hypotheses that have been proposed, we are still far from a definitive answer to the Fermi Paradox. The search for extraterrestrial life continues, and new technologies and methods are being developed to detect and communicate with potential alien civilizations. Ultimately, the resolution of the Fermi Paradox may require a fundamental shift in our understanding of the universe and our place within it. Until then, it remains one of the most intriguing and enduring mysteries of modern science.

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Blog 8 – The History of Venus

Posted on April 26, 2023 by Melanie Marszal

When asked to picture Venus, many of us picture a hot, volcanic, inhabitable place — and we would be correct. However, science suggests that it may not have always been this way. A study of five different climate simulations of Venus found that in each of these scenarios, the planet could have supported liquid water and a habitable temperature for at least three billion years. Probes have found considerable amounts of heavy water, which is water with the hydrogen replaced by deuterium, in the atmosphere of Venus. The amount of heavy water found suggests that enough classic liquid water may have existed on Venus at one point to form an entire ocean.

These findings may lead someone to wonder what happened to Venus to change it so drastically. While there are many unknowns, it appears that about 700 million years ago, some unknown event occurred that triggered a runaway greenhouse effect. This event is thought to have likely been related to the volcanic activity on the surface.

Another recent study found that Venus instead may have been uninhabitable for around 70% of its lifetime, which would be a bit less interesting. They also argue that if Venus had liquid water at some point, we would be able to see more oxygen in its atmosphere. As Venus heated, the liquid water should have vaporized and then broken down into hydrogen and oxygen. They have theories as to what could have happened to the oxygen, but they do not consider any of them to be particularly plausible. Therefore, the history of Venus remains a mystery.

Given that Earth and Venus are twinsies, and that Venus may have been habitable at some point, Venus could be considered a frightening warning as to what will happen to our planet if our own greenhouse effect gets out of hand.

Image of Venus from NASA
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