Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de’ Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) He observed the sky with a telescope. With the telescope, he discovered that the moon has mountains, canyons, and craters. He also found the phases of Venus and sunspots. Moreover, he detected the Milky way galaxy which is made up of countless individual stars. All his great discoveries facilitated the birth of modern astronomy.
Two important historical events
The Thirty Years’ War:(between 1618 and 1648), involved most of the European nations. The war lasted for years and caused great social, economic, and political upheaval in Europe.
The Sack of Rome was a devastating event in which the imperial army of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked and looted Rome in 1527. The event was considered a major turning point in the Italian Wars and had a devastating effect on both the city of Rome and its population.
Francis Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman
Sir Francis Bacon was a famous historical figure who was an early proponent of the scientific method and is considered one of the fathers of modern science. In addition, He played a pivotal role in establishing the English legal system, and his works on rhetoric and logic are still used today.
Brief Relection
Personally, it was incredibly interesting for me to learn about the revolutionary contributions of Sir Francis Bacon and Galileo Galilei to the field of astronomy. They both showed great insight into the natural world, discovering groundbreaking principles such as heliocentrism. They were pioneers in the development of modern astronomy and helped us gain a deeper understanding of the Universe. Their discoveries are still used today and their legacy will live on forever.
Posted inHistorical|Taggedastro2110, HW2|Comments Off on Historical Astronomers in Context
Nicholas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who was born on February 19,1473 and died on May 24, 1543. Copernicus was important to astronomy because he formulated and popularized the idea that the Sun, rather than the Earth, was the center of the “universe.” He also accurately described how Earth’s rotation was the cause of sunrise and sunset, and that Earth’s orbit of the sun was the cause of seasons and the motion of the stars. These were seemingly novel ideas at the time and went against the predominant Ptolemaic and Christian model of the “universe.”
Some important historical events during Copernicus’ lifetime were the Protestant Reformation of 1521 and the end of the Italian Renaissance in 1527. The Protestant Reformation was the result of a period of unrest in the Catholic Church when Martin Luther released his “95 Theses” criticizing various aspects of the church. This resulted in the formation of the Lutheran sect of Christianity. The Italian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural growth and celebration that resulted in many new ideas and forms of expression. It ended when Holy Roman Empire troops invaded Rome and arrested Pope Clement VII, bringing conflict and disorder to the region. Another famous person who lived during the time of Copernicus was Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a prominent figure in European politics. During his reign, the Ottoman Empire made significant contributions to legal theory. Suleiman was born in November, 1494 and died on September 5, 1566.
It was interesting learning about Copernicus and the various other historical events of his time because it put into perspective the nature of his achievements. Copernicus did not live during an uneventful or peaceful time in history. There was a lot of conflict throughout Europe that may have dissuaded someone from developing and sharing revolutionary (pun intended) ideas. However, Copernicus stayed true to his beliefs and made an impact on history during a time when history was being made. The political climate was not ripe for such ideas; however, Copernicus’ concentration and dedication persevered.
As a young apprentice of Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler had years of naked-eye observations to make discoveries with. Between the discrepancies surrounding Tycho’s observations and the Copernican belief that planetary orbits are perfect circles, Kepler surmised that planetary orbits are ellipses. He took his discoveries and named three laws of planetary motion that later became acceptable, physical models of nature.
Historical Events:
Mayflower lands in the New World: In November of 1620, Mayflower arrived at what is now present day United States with about 100 passengers from England, known as the Pilgrims.
Spanish Armada defeated: On July 29, 1588, an English naval force defeated Spain’s “Invincible Armada”.
Historical Figure:
William Shakespeare was born in April 1564 and died in April 1616. He was an English playwright and poet and is world famous for his writing. Some of his work includes well-known tragedies Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth.
Reflection:
I find it interesting that facts we consider common knowledge were major points of contention between groups just several centuries ago. Without modern math, science, and the ability to leave the Earth’s atmosphere, astronomers could only make conjectures as to the nature of the “heavens”. This and the rigidity of the Catholic Church certainly did not help in bringing about the Copernican Revolution. I also found Kepler’s trust in Tycho’s measurements to be critical, since the accuracy of his measurements allowed him to discover that planetary orbits are in fact ellipses.
Johannes Kepler (Birth date – December 27th, 1571, Death date – November 15th, 1630)
Kepler was important to astronomy because he rejected the tens of thousands year old belief that the Earth was the center of the universe and planets orbited in perfect circles. He instead created Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion, which suggest that the orbit of each planet is an ellipse, a planet moves faster and covers greater distance when closer to the Sun, and more distant planets orbit slower. He even hypothesized some kind of force that pulled the planets to the Sun which we now know as gravity.
One event that happened during Kepler’s lifetime was the Eighty Years’ War. The Eighty Years’ War was a conflict between groups of rebels and the Spanish government over the Reformation, taxation, and rights and privileges of nobles and cities.
Another event that happened during Kepler’s lifetime was the establishment of Jamestown in Virginia. Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas and more than 80 percent of the colonists died between 1609 and 1610 due to starvation and disease.
Claudio Monteverdi was an Italian composer that lived during Kepler’s lifetime and was born on May 15th 1567 and died on November 29th 1643. He was most famous for developing operas, the most famous of which is called L’Orfeo and is still widely performed today, and inventing the basso continuo technique.
Reflection
I think it’s fascinating that Tycho dedicated his whole life to carefully observing the stars to the precision of an arcminute, which is less than the thickness of a fingernail viewed at arm’s length, never proved the planets orbited the Sun, and on his deathbed entrusted his disciple Kepler to prove him right. Kepler then made his own observations, noticed they were 8 arcminutes apart from Tycho’s observations, and because he trusted Tycho’s observations were accurate, he was then forced to conclude planets don’t orbit in perfect circles and instead orbit in ellipses. It took two whole lifetimes of hard work and dedication and sponsorships from rich kings to figure this ancient astronomical mystery, and both of them did not live long enough to see the effects of their work. I would sure be proud if my life’s work was featured in textbooks and engraved in history forever. I also think it’s odd that the discovery of Jamestown occurred around the same time as Kepler was forming his three laws, for some reason I always pictured ancient astronomical discoveries happening before the discovery of Jamestown but in reality these discoveries were a lot closer to nowadays than I thought.
Tycho Brahe was the best naked eye observer of all time. He lived before the invention of the telescope, and therefore had to rely on his vision for all of his observations. He presented a geo-heliocentric model of the solar system in which the sun and moon revolved around Earth but everything else revolved around the sun. One advantage of this approach is that it got rid of the idea of rotating crystal spheres held in the Ptolemaic view of the universe, because it would be impossible for orbits to intersect if they were made from crystal spheres. Among other things he observed a comet and a supernova, but his most significant lasting impact to astronomy were the extremely accurate measurements that he made of movements in the heavens. While he did not personally use these measurements to their fullest extent, after his death they allowed Kepler to devise his three laws of planetary motion which are still being used to this day.
Historical Events During Brahe’s Life
1580- Francis Drake circumnavigates globe and is knighted by Queen Elizabeth I. He was the first Englishman to circumnavigate as well as the first captain of a voyage to fully circumnavigate the globe. (Magellan died in the Philippines)
1588- The Spanish Armada defeated by the English. At that time the Spanish had the best navy in the world and the victory solidified England as an international power. The battle also marked the introduction of long range naval weapons for the first time.
Famous People During Brahe’s Life
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)- Shakespeare was alive for a good portion of Brahe’s life and is well known as one of the best playwrights in the history of the English language. Many of his plays were performed in the Globe theater and he is known for such works as Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
Reflection
I think this was a very beneficial activity because it puts the time period of these astronomers in better context. It’s easy for me to learn about their accomplishments, but the dates just go in one ear and out the other because I don’t have a lot of events in the late 1500s at the forefront of my mind. Learning about the historical context makes their achievements seem a lot more impressive and I think its just really cool to see things like the overlap in the lifetimes of Brahe and Shakespeare.
Of the given astronomers, I chose Tycho Brahe (December 14, 1546 – October 24, 1601):
Tycho Brahe created precise instruments for observing and measuring the sky before the creation of the telescope. He kept a meticulous record of stars and planets- in particular Mars along with a new model of the solar system which would allow future astronomers to provide sufficient proof for their own theories in astronomy. He observed somewhat new objects or ideas such as comets and supernovae which would prove that in fact the heavens are not unchanging. He tried to observe stellar parallax which he could not find due to the precision of his instruments, but he suggested the Earth was the center of the Universe or stars were too far away to measure their parallax. He chose the former, which is incorrect, but his suggestions would form the basis of modern astronomy. Learn more about Brahe and other astronomers at this website.
A couple historical events that occurred during Brahe’s life are listed below:
Wars of Religion (1562-1598): A series of religious conflicts in France between Protestants and Catholics ravaged the country until the Edict of Nantes, establishing religious tolerance was established. Information on the eight specific conflicts can be found here.
Index Librorum Prohibitorum (1557-1966): The Catholic Church published a list of books which could not be printed and was used to guide censorship laws until 1966. This index strengthened the hold the Church had over the spread of information and outside influence to common people and thus led to periods of misinformation and mass exiles. More information can be found here.
At the same time Brahe lived, Sir Francis Drake (whom some of you may know from the Uncharted series) began sailing. Commissioned by Queen Elizabeth, he became the first Englishman to sail around the world – an achievement that highlighted the Elizabethan era. He also led forces against Spain in the Americas which ended up fueling the Anglo-Spanish War, but he ended up with millions worth of Spanish treasure and legends of hidden loot. His specific adventures are outlined here.
After researching Tycho Brahe and the other astronomers, I mentally put them in their own category for what was going on in the world during this time. I had never fully put them in context of what the rest of the world was doing at the time, so I found this exercise very interesting. Despite Brahe being on the cutting edge of what a human could observe about the universe, he was not even using a telescope for his observations. And yet, his notes would still be used by other astronomers even after better technology was invented, which serves as a testament to his intelligence and skill. However, at the same time, religious conflict is plaguing Europe, and pirates are ravaging the seas and somewhat newly discovered Americas. It is easy to learn about an event or some discovery and separate it from the rest of history or generalize it to the rest of the world at that period in time. On the other hand, it is important to understand the larger context of for example Brahe’s work as that informs his decisions during that time. He did not dare conclude that any of his work proved the Church was incorrect given the power that religion held during the time which is supported by the Wars of Religion and newly founded censorship guidelines.
Johannes Kepler, who lived from 1571 to 1630, revealed three laws of planetary motion which explain the motion of the planets in the solar system. The first law concerning orbits states that all planets move around the Sun in an elliptic orbit. The second law, the “area law,” implies that a planets angular momentum is constant. The third law is called the “harmonic law” which mathematically connects the time of an orbit to the distance of an orbit. These laws provided crucial information in the advancement of astronomy.
Historical Events During Johannes Kepler’s Life
On May 14, 1607, a settlement was established in Jamestown, Virginia by the Virginia Company of London who was granted by King James I of England.
On August 15, 1620, the Mayflower, an English ship, set out carrying a group of people referred to as the Pilgrims. They established Plymouth colony in what is now Massachusetts.
Historical Figure During Johannes Kepler’s Life
James I of England was born on June 19, 1566 and died on March 27, 1625, and he ruled for most of his life as the king of England and Scotland. While his reign is described as successful, he is set apart by his writings which have been preserved.
Reflection of Historical Context in Relation to Astronomers
The context for this time does not seem to overlap with astronomical discoveries at all. This is simply not true; we are all influenced by the time and place which we are in. This was a time of discovery in Europe. The common theme seems to be that they were interested in knowing more about the world. The Jamestown and Plymouth colonies being established is an indication of wanting to expand. The discoveries of astronomers of this time are also in the interest of learning more about the world. They wanted to know why the sky looked like it did. This contextual information helped me to better understand the motives of the astronomers. They were explorers, but instead of exploring land, they were exploring the sky.
Since the day humans first appeared on earth to this day when we have come to the modern era of science, the colossal sky that stays above us has always made us think about our existence in this universe. In ancient times, people used to only observe the sky with their bare eyes. But as we moved towards the modern era of Astronomy, we started using different tools like telescopes, binoculars etc. And now in this post modern era when we have the strongest computational tools, we have a lot of different options to observe the sky. We can now do sky observation on our device-screens sitting at home, and see how the sky looks like from a different city or even from a different planet.
Some of the famous modern sky observation tools of our time are given below.
Stellarium
Seeing the sky from Saturn in Stellarium. Source: Me
Stellarium is a free, open-source planetarium software that allows users to explore the night sky in 3D. The program includes detailed information on stars, planets, constellations, and deep sky objects, and allows users to customize the view of the sky according to their location and time. Stellarium is available for Windows, Mac, and Linux. One of the great features of Stellarium is its ability to display the sky with realistic lighting and atmospheric effects, allowing users to experience the beauty of the night sky in a more immersive way.
Star Chart is another popular app for sky observing. It uses the device’s camera to display an augmented reality view of the sky, making it easy to identify stars and planets. The app also includes information on constellations and deep sky objects, as well as a time-lapse feature that allows users to see how the sky changes over time. Star Chart is particularly useful for those who are new to sky observing, as it provides clear and concise information on the objects in the sky, as well as an interactive and engaging interface.
SkySafari is a comprehensive app for sky observing that is available for both iOS and Android devices. The app includes detailed information on over 100,000 celestial objects, including stars, planets, galaxies, and nebulae. It also includes a feature that allows users to control telescopes remotely, as well as a time-lapse feature that shows how the sky changes over time. One of the great features of SkySafari is its ability to simulate the sky at any time and place in the past or future, allowing users to plan their observing sessions or learn about historical or future astronomical events.
SkyView
SkyView is a popular app that allows users to explore the night sky using their smartphone or tablet. The app uses the device’s GPS and compass to display a detailed map of the sky, including stars, planets, constellations, and deep sky objects such as galaxies and nebulae. Users can also search for specific objects, set reminders for astronomical events, and even control telescopes remotely using the app. One of the great features of SkyView is its ability to display the sky in different modes, such as a live camera view, an augmented reality view, or a traditional star chart view. This allows users to choose the view that best suits their needs and preferences.
As the postmodern era of Astronomy emerges it’s our opportunity to explore the new possibilities that have become possible with these sky observation applications and websites. We should keep in mind what Carl Sagan said, “
“Our species needs, and deserves, a citizenry with minds wide awake and a basic understanding of how the world works.”
Johannes Kepler (born December 27, 1571– died November 15, 1630) contributed to the field of astronomy by the formulation of his 3 Laws of Planetary Motion, which were later derived and formalized by Isaac Newton. The laws are 1) that planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun at one focal point, 2) that a planet will always cover the same area over the same time, and 3) that the square of a planets time to orbit (p) is exactly related to the cube of its average distance from the sun (a). This view diverged from the traditionally-held notion that celestial bodies moved in perfect circles, building dynamically on Copernicus’ heliocentric model.
Learn more about Kepler, his life, and his intellectual contributions here!
“O telescope, instrument of much knowledge, more precious than any sceptre!”
To put into context the time at which Kepler was living, we can look to some of his contemporary historical events.
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII introduced the Gregorian Calendar with the intent to change the date of Easter. The Julian calendar, first introduced in 46 BC by Julius Caesar, miscalculated the length of the solar year. The Gregorian Calendar is still off by about 26 seconds but has been the norm since.
In 1607, the first permanent English settlement in North America, Jamestown Colony was established. The intersection of conflict with Indigenous tribes, lack of resources, and disease led to many deaths, but the colony held out until more settlers arrived, enabling expansion and growth.
Another historical figure who lived at the same time as Kepler is William Shakespeare (baptized April 26, 1564– died April 23, 1616). He is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time, with such notable works as A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo and Juliet. Shakespeare lived during the early modern period at the end of the middle ages, and his many plays and sonnets are frequently read and referenced in the modern era.
“I am constant as the northern star, Of whose true-fix’d and resting quality There is no fellow in the firmament.”
Julius Caesar, in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (III, I, 60-62)
Learning this context helped me put into perspective the timeline of astronomical research. For the last blog post, when I was looking at the Cosmic Calendar, I became increasingly aware of how minuscule the lengths of time that seem so great to us actually are; so, the 400-ish years that have passed since the time of Kepler, his peers, and the historical developments of their time– such as implementation of the Gregorian Calendar and English settlement in North America– are only about 1 second of this compressed timeline. Another thing that was interesting to me is how much changed in the field of astronomy over this short period of time; for centuries, our understanding of the universe was relatively static and clung to misinformed paradigms such as geocentricity. Suddenly, during just one century, knowledge increased dramatically; I’m curious how much of this acceleration is due to contextual factors and how much is just the cultivation of a ripe intellectual community that reinforces each other. Is there, then, a way for us today to foster such an environment and enable such dramatic levels of discovery?
The Rocket Man came from a galaxy far far away. He came down to earth to study Astronomy. He is in Dr. G’s class at present.
The Rocket Man participating in International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics (IOAA) 2019 in Keszthely, Hungary. SOURCE: Rocket Man
What is The Rocket Man’s favorite star?
The Rocket Man likes Astronomy because Astronomy has made it possible for him to make it to the planet earth. His favorite star on earth’s sky is the star Betelgeuse. Betelgeuse is a red giant, and it’s recent dimming from earth’s sky confirms there is a huge possibility that the star has already exploded. Maybe within a few years it would be possible for the people on earth to see the explosion as a bright little object in the place of Betelgeuse in the night sky.
Illustration of explosion of Betelgeuse. SOURCE: CNet
